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J. H. COLTON'S 

PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY 



BY 



GEORGE W. FITCH. 



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NEW YORK: 

IVISON, PHINNEY, BLAKEMAN & CO., 47 a.;d 49 C-REENE STKEET. 

CHICAGO: S. C. GRIGGS & CO., 39 ^b *1 LAKE .STREET. 

1867. 



**J 



t LIBRARY OF CONGRESS, f 






J UNITED STATES OF AMERICA. j| 



4 V 



& OUTLINES 



PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY 



GEORGE W. FITCH; 

ii 

REVISED, WITH NOTES, ADDITIONS, AND AMENDMENTS, BY 

ALPHONSO J. ROBINSON. 

/ 

ILLUSTRATED WITH 



" Let me once understand the real geography of a country— its organic structure, if I may so call it; the form of its skeleton— that is, of its hills; the magnitude and 
comae of its veins and arteries — that is, of its streams and rivers ; let me conceive of it as a whole, made up of connected parts : and then the position of man s dwellings, 
viewed in reference to these parts, becomes at once easily remembered, and lively and intelligible besides ,! Dr. Arnold 



CHANGED TO QUARTO FORM, 

WITH QUESTIONS ON THE MAPS, 

AND 

AN ARTICLE ON THE PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY OF THE UNITED STATES, 

BT 

CHARLES CARROLL MORGAN. 



t NEW YORK: 
IVISON, PHINNEY, BLAKEMAN & CO., 47 and 49 GREENE STREET. 
CHICAGO: S. C. GRIGGS & CO., 39 and 41 LAKE STREET. 

1867. 









Entered, according to Act of Congress, in the year One Thousand Eight Hundred and Sixty-Seven. 

By J. H. COLTON, 
In the Clerk's Office of the District Court of the United States for the pastern District of New York. 



Davies & Kent, 

Stereotypers and Electvotypers* 

1S3 William St., N. T. 



PREFACE. 



The following pages Lave been prepared with a view of supplying the want of a treatise on Physical Geography, adapted 
to the use of Schools and Academies. It is rather a remarkable fact, that among the multitude and variety of school-books 
prepared for the schools in the United States, there is not one devoted exclusively to this science. The consequence is, that 
Physical Geography, as a separate study, is very rarely taught in our schools, and that all, or most of the knowledge acquired 
respecting it, is what is incidentally obtained in pursuing other kindred studies. 

The Author has aimed to present none but well-authenticated facts, and accordingly he has consulted the latest and most 
reliable authorities. Among the works from which valuable information has been obtained are " L yell's Principles op Geol- 
ogy," " Milner's Gallery op Nature," " Milner's Geography," " Kaemtz's Meteorology," " Hughes' Outlines of Geog- 
raphy," and " Somervtlle's Physical Geography." To A. D. Bache, Superintendent of the United States Coast Survey, the 
Author is indebted for various Reports of the operations of that department, and for a Tide Table of the United States, which 
was specially prepared for this book. 

The maps were compiled with the greatest care by Mr. George W. Colton, the aim being to exhibit the most remarkable 
and interesting features of Physical Geography, so far as they are capable of being represented to the eye. 

It is proper to observe that, in the preparation of this treatise, no attempt at originality was made, but simply an effort to 
digest and arrange the more important facts in an intelligible style for learners. In many instances the Author has employed 
the phraseology of other writers, without always defacing the pages with quotation marks and references. Lengthened extracts, 
and those containing peculiar views of an author, are credited to their proper sources. 

The Author can not refrain from expressing the hope that the book will meet the approbation of teachers, and excite in the 
minds of learners a desire for further attainments in this interesting department of science. 



ADVERTISEMENT TO TEE QUARTO EDITION. 



In order to accommodate in this work an increased number of maps (some of them on a large scale), and to admit the 
introduction of map questions on the same pages as the maps, or on the opposite pages, it has been changed to quarto form. In 
making this change, and in adding the map questions, however, no alteration has been made in the numbers of the paragraphs 
or descriptive Lessons. The references to the book, therefore, except for pages, will be found the same either in the duodecimo 
or quarto form. 

It is believed that the above-mentioned additions much enhance the value of the work; since, by the more extensive use 
of maps, the subject is not only more perfectly illustrated, but a greater number of facts are taught through the medium of the 
eye, and thus are more clearly and durably impressed on the memory, while the student is oftener led to exercise his powers 
of observation and of philosophic deduction. 

A carefully prepared chapter on the physical geography of the United States has been inserted in the Appendix, lor the in- 
struction of those who prefer seeking a knowledge of the subject in this connection. It embodies the results of the latest 
researches, and is one of the most complete essays on the natural character and resources of our country that has yet been pub- 
lished. 

Many new pictorial illustrations, intended for instruction as well as embellishment, have also been inserted. 

It is hoped the foregoing improvements will commend themselves to all who are interested in education, and will lead to 
a more extensive use of the book in the higher grades of schools. 



CONTENTS. 



INTRODUCTION. 

Definition of Physical Geography— how divided— the First Part^-the Second Part— the 
Third Part— the Fourth Part Page 1 



PART J. 

THE LAND. 

LESSON I. — Extent and Distribution op the Land 2 

LESSON II. — Continents : Eastern Continent — its extreme limits. North America : its 
length and breadth— area— coast-line— indentations. South America: its dimen- 
sions 2-3 

LESSON III.— Continents (continued) : Eastern Continent : its length and breadth— area. 
Europe : its dimensions— its peninsular character. Asia : its dimensions. Africa : its 
dimensions. Table of the area of the five grand divisions, their extent of coast-line, 
etc. General remarks on the continents 8-4 

LESSON IV.— Islands : Australia— table of the area of some of the largest islands, and 
their comparative size— Eockall — chains of islands or continental islands— oceanic 
islands — archipelagoes— single islands, St. Helena, Ascension Islands— volcanic isl- 
ands—examples of islands suddenly formed by volcanic action, Graham Island . . . 5-6 

LESSON Y. — Coral Islands : Great extent of coralline structures — Great Barrier Eeef— 
description of coral animals and ibeir operations— an atoll- lagoons — encircling-reefs 
—barrier-reefs— action of the waves on the Great Barrier Eeef— Florida Eeef— Florida 
Keys - coral fringes— observations on coral islands by Capt. Basil Hall 6-8 

LESSON VI. — Mountains: Insulated mountains— usual arrangement of mountains- 
mountain systems of the two continents — secondary ranges — highest known mountains 
on the globe — loftiest summits in the other four grand divisions— table of heights above 
the sea of some remarkable inhabited sites— list of some remarkable heights which 
have been reached ; 8-9 

LESSON VII. — The Mountain Systems op the "Western Continent : North American 
Mountains. — The Eocky Mountains, the highest summits - the Mountains of the "West 
Coast — the Apalachian or Allegany ranges, Green Mountains, "White Mountains, Adi- 
rondack Mountains, Catskill Mountains— highest summits in the Apalachian range — 
Ozark Mountains — the mountains in Mexico — South American Mountains. — The 
Andes— how divided— peculiarities of each division. The mountains of Guiana — of 
Brazil 9-11 

LESSON VIII. — Mountain Systems of the Eastern Continent: European Mount- 
ains — The Balkan Mountains— the Alps, celebrated passes— the Appenines— the Car- 
pathian Mountains — the Mountains of the Spanish peninsula— the Scandinavian 
Mountains — the Ural Mountains. Asiatic Mountains. — The Himalaya Mountains — 
the Altai Mountains— the Hindoo-Koosh— the Mountains of Armenia— the chain of 
Mount Taurus. — African Mountains. — Atlas Mountains — the Mountains of Abyssinia 
— mountains of the western coast — of the eastern coast — of South Africa 11-13 

LESSON IX.— Upland Plains or Table-Lands : Table-lands of North America— pla- 
teau of Chihuahua — table-lands of South America — the most extensive table-land of Eu- 
rope— table-lands of Asia— elevation of the plain of Tibet— table-lands of Africa. 13-14 

LESSON X. — Lowland Plains : The great central plain of North America — prairies — 
the plain or lowland of the Atlantic coast — the great central plain of South America — 
llanos— selvas — pampas 14-16 

LESSON XI. — Glaciers: Eegions of glaciers— their origin— movements of glaciers— ap- 
pearance of glaciers— their uses 16-17 

LESSON XII. — Snow Mountains and Avalanches : Drift, sliding, creeping, and ice 
avalanches— destructive effects of avalanches 1T-19 

LESSON XIII.— Volcanoes : Active, intermittent, or extinct volcanoes — number and 
distribution of volcanoes 19-20 

LESSON XIV.— Volcanic Eegions : The Volcanic Regions of the Andes— of North 
America. Volcanoes of Mexico— of the "West India Islands. Volcanic Regionfrom 
the Aleutian Isles to the Moluccas and Isles of Sunda. Volcanic Regions of the Medi- 
terranean 20-21 

LESSON" XV.— Vesuvius: Description of its crater -Herculaneum and Pompeii. Etna 
—its eruption in 1669. Volcanoes of Iceland — eruption of Skaptar Jokul in 1753. 
Geysers' 21-23 ' 

LESSON XVI.— Earthquakes : Proof that earthquakes and volcanoes have a similar 
origin— intensity of earthquakes— movements of the earth they produce — their dura- 
tion, instances — their frequency— their effects in elevating and depressing the land, 
instances— clefts and Assures— fatal effects of earthquakes 23-24 



PART II. 

THE WATEES, 

LESSON I. — Chemical Composition op "Water : The fresh water— the salt water— salts 
contained in sea-water— salt-water lakes— the benevolence of the Deity as manifested 
in the wide diffusion of water over the globe Pages 25-27 

LESSON II. — Mineral Springs : Acidulous waters — chalybeate springs — sulphurous 
springs— saline springs, the salt springs at Salina and Syracuse— mineral springs of tho 
United States 27-28 

LESSON III. — Eivers : Their sources — basins — area of the principal river basins — course 
of rivers - table of river windings 28-29 

LESSON IV.— Eivers (continued) : The fall of rivers— cataracts -the Falls of Niagara— 
of St. Anthony — other noted falls in America — principal waterfalls of the Eastern Con- 
tinent 29-30 

LESSON V.— Eivers (continued): The termination of rivers— deltas— the delta of the 
Mississippi, how produced — sedimentary matter of the Ganges — oceanic rivers— conti- 
nental rivers— causes which determine the magnitude of rivers -proportional quantity 
of water discharged by some of the principal rivers— inundations of rivers — historic 
associations of rivers 30-32 

LESSON VI. — The Eiver Systems op the "Western Continent : North American Bvs- 
ers. — Divisions of the continent with reference to its drainage — the Mississippi — the 
Missouri— the Ohio- the St. Lawrence— other streams draining the Atlantic shipe — 
rivers draining the region west of the Eocky Mountains— rivers draining the northern 
slope — other streams 32-83 

LESSON VII. — Eiver Systems op the "Western Continent ( ontinued) : SoutJi Amer- 
ican Rivers.— The Orinoco —the Amazon— the Eio de la Plata 33-34 

LESSON VIII. — Eiver Systems op the Eastern Continent : The two principal river 
systems of Europe— the Volga — Danube — Ehine— other European rivers 34-35 

LESSON IX. — Eiver Systems of the Eastern Continent (continued) : The two prin- 
cipal classes of Asiatic rivers — the Obi — Tenesei — Lena — Ganges— the Indus— other 
Asiatic rivers— drainage by continental rivers. African Rivers— the Nile — the Niger 
— other African rivers 35-36 

LESSON X. — Lakes: Distribution of fresh-water lakes — salt-water lakes— physical dif- 
ference of lakes— lakes which have no outlet, and do not receive any running water 
— lakes which receive water, but have no ai parent outlet — lakes which receive no 
streams, but give birth to some — lakes which both receive and discharge water — ele- 
vations of lakes 36-37 

LESSON XI.— Lakes (co?itinued) : North American lakes. — Lake Superior— Huron — 
Michigan — Ontario — other North American Lakes. SoutJi American Lakes. — Lake 
Titicaca 87-SS 

LESSON XII. — Lakes (continued) : European lakes.— Tables of the dimensions of the 
principal European lakes, their elevations, etc. Asiatic Lakes. African lakes. 38-39 

LESSON XIII. — The Ocean: Pariial oceans and their branches— the Arctic Ocean — 
floating masses of ice— sheet ice— the Grinnell Expedition— icebergs — point of tho 
greatest cold — the Atlantic Ocean — "Banks of Fucus"— the Pacific Ocean— the Indian 
Ocean — the Antarctic Ocean — discoveries of "Wilkes and Eoss 89-41 

LESSON XIV.— The Ocean (continued) : Temperature — color — depth— deep-sea sound- 
ings 41-42 

LESSON XV. — The Ocean (continued) : "Waves — tides — theory of tides explained- tide 
table for the coast of tlie United States 42-44 

LESSON XVI.— The Ocean (continued)'. Currents— causes of the oceanic currents- 
arctic current— equatorial current — Mexican Gulf Stream 44-46 



PART III. 

THE ATMOSPHERE. 

LESSON I.— Composition op Air: Properties of Oxygen gas. 



47 

LESSON II. — Properties of the Atm< sphere : Transparency— fluidity— weight— how 
indicated— the use that is made of barometers to ascertain the height of mountains- 
elasticity of the atmosphere— effect of rarefied air on the human body 47-48 

LESSON III.— "Winds: How eauped— uses — how their direction is indicated— the direc- 
tion of the wind in the upper regions often the reverse of what it is in the lower- 
velocity of winds. — Variable Winds. — Table of the relative frequency of winds in dif- 
ferent countries — cold winds— the bora, mistral, vent de bise, gallego — hot winds- 
simoon — harmattan— stocco— salano 48-51 



VI 



CONTENTS. 



LESSON IV.— Permanent Winds : The trade -winds— how explained— important uses of 
trade-winds .- Pages 51-53 

LESSON" V.— Periodical "Winds: Monsoons— Etesian "Winds— land and sea breezes— the 
zone of calms 53-56 

LESSON" VI. — Hueeicanes : The three hurricane regions 56 

LESSON VII. - Moistg-eb : When least in the atmosphere— when greatest— mists and 
fogs 56-5T 

LESSON VIII.— Clouds : Cirrus or curlcloud— cumulus or stackencloud— stratus or fall- 
cloud— composite forms — height of clouds 57-59 

LESSON IX.— Pain : Extraordinary showers— unequal distribution of rain— table show- 
ing the diminution of rain from the equator to the poles— increase in the annual num- 
ber of the rainy days as we go from the equator explained - fall of rain the greatest 
near the coasts— and in mountainous districts— rainless regions— rainy seasons in the 
tropics 59-60 

LESSON X.— Snow and Hail : Forms of snow crystals— limits of snow at the level of 
the sea - uses of snow— hail, how formed 60-61 

LESSON XI.— Climate : Meaning of the term — by what causes determined— the latitude 
of a country —elevation above the level of the sea— line of perpetual snow — climates 
of mountainous regions in the torrid zone— height above the sea of individual classes 
of vegetation— vegetable regions o£ Mount Etna — Teneriffe 61-65 

LESSON XII.— Climate (continued) : The nearness to, or remoteness of a country from 
the sea— why America has a colder climate than corresponding latitudes in the Eastern 
Hemisphere— the slope of a country or the aspect it presents to the sun's course — how 
observed in the Alps — the position and direction of mountain chains — the nature of 
the soil—the cultivation and improvement of a country— prevalent winds — annual 
quantity of rain 65-67 

LESSON XIII.— Climate (continued); When the greatest cold occurs— table of the cli- 
mates of different places- isothermal lines— hot regions— warm regions— temperate 
regions— cold regions— frozen regions „ , , 67-69 



PART IV. 

THE OEGAKIC CREATION. 

LESSON L— Plants : Organic existence defined -wide distribution of plants— light, heat, 
and moisture as affecting plants— numbtr of species known— divisions of the vegetable 
kingdom— ages of trees. 70-71 

LESSON II.— Distribution of Plants: Indigenous and exotic plants— different regions 
inhabited by distinct species of plants— botanical provinces — diffusion of plants 71-74 



LESSON III.— Food Plants: What plants man has selected for his food— arborescent 
food-plants— the food-plants which prevail in the Old World— those which have their 
origin in the New World — barley, rye, oats— wheat, buckwheat— maize or Indian corn, 
rice— olive, date-palm— banana— cocoa-nut palm— bread-fruit tree— potato -cassava 
—arrow root — sugar-cane— coffee — tea — the vine — fig — the cocoa or chocolate 
tree Pages 74-76 

LESSON IV. — Animals! Number of species— four grand divisions — vertebrated animals 
— how subdivided— mammalia — birds— reptiles— molluscous animals — articulated ani- 
mals — radiated animals * 76-7T 

LESSON V. — Distribution of Animals: Diversity in the organizations of animals— pro- 
fusion of animal life in the torrid zone— insects of the torrid zone— reptiles, birds, aud 
mammiferous quadrupeds of the torrid zone — animal tribes of the temperate and cold 
regions— adaptation of animals to different climates 77-81 

LESSON VI. — Zoological Regions: Different regions inhabited by distinct species of 
animals, as well as plants— number of zoological regions — European region — African 
region— region of Southern Africa— of Madagascar — of India— of the Indian Archipel- 
ago — of New Guinea — of Australia— of North America — of South America 81-82 

LESSON VII. — Man : Number of thehuman race— their wide diffusion— man's capability 
of accommodating himself to a great diversity of circumstances 82-S3 

LESSON VIII. — Races of Men: All mankind the offspring of common parents— classi- 
fications of mankind with reference to the color of the hair — with reference to the shapo 
of the skull— the Caucasian race — the Mongolian race— the Ethiopic race— the Amer- 
ican race— the Malay race. 83-S5 

QUESTIONS ON THE MAPS £7-97 



APPENDIX. 

PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY OF THE UNITED STATES 98-100 

CHIEF PRODUCTIONS OF THE EARTH, AND THE COUNTRIES "WHERE 

THEY ARE PRINCIPALLY PRODUCED 108-104 

EXPORTS OF COUNTRIES 101 

TRADE ROUTES 104-105 

METALLIC PRODUCTIONS 105-103 

PRINCIPAL MOUNTAINS, AND THEIR ELEVATION 108-110 

PRINCIPAL RIVERS OF THE WORLD 110-118 

TABLE OF MEAN TEMPERATURE OF EACH SEASON, AND OF THE 

WHOLE YEAR 112 



LIST OF MAPS. 



THE WORLD, illustrating the principal features of the Land and the Co-Tidal Lines. 4 

THE WORLD, showing the Distribution of Volcanoes aud Earthquakes 18 

THE WORLD, showing the principal Ocean Currenls and Boundaries of River Sys- 
tems 26 

THE WORLD, illustrating the principal features of Meteorology 54 

THE WORLD, illustrating the relative amount of Rain or Melted Snow and Ice depos- 
ited on the Lands 62 

THE WORLD, showing the Distribution and Limits of Cultivation of the Principal 

Plants useful to Mankind , 72 

CHART, showing the Vertical Range of various Plants . . 72 

THE WORLD, showiog the Geographical Distribution and Range of the principal mem- 
bers of the Animal Kingdom , "mi, i.i 78 



REPTILE MAP T8 

BIRD MAP 78 

THE WORLD, showing the Distribution of the principal Races and Varieties of Man- 
kind 85 

NORTH AMERICA (Physical) 86 

SOUTH AMERICA, " 88 

EUROPE, " 90 

ASIA, " 93 

AFRICA, " 94 

UNITED STATES OF AMERICA (Physical) 96 

THE WORLD, illustrating the Productive Industry of various Countries, and exhibiting 
the principal features of Commerce and Navigation, 102 



PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. 



INTRODUCTION. 




HTSICAL Geography is a 
description of the general 
features of the earth's surface, 
the organized beings placed upon 
it, and the operations of the at- 
mosphere by which it is univer- 
sally surrounded. It relates to 
the earth as it exists in a state 
of nature, without regard to po- 
litical or arbitrary divisions, or 
to any of those changes or im- 
provements in the world which 
have been effected by man. 

2. It may be divided into four parts, relating respectively 
to the following subjects: 1. The Land, or solid portion of 
the earth's surface; 2. The Water, or liquid portion; 3. The 
operations of the Atmosphere ; 4. Animal and Vegetable 
life. 

3. The First Part describes the extent and distribution of the 
land ; the arrangement of the continents and islands ; the mag- 
nitude and direction of the great mountain systems ; and the 
situation and extent of the vast plains, upland and lowland, 
which constitute the most productive portions of the earth's 
surface. This part also relates to volcanoes, earthquakes, etc., 
in their relation to the character and aspect of the land portion 
of the earth. 

4. The Second Part relates to the waters of the globe, 
whether salt or fresh ; the origin, course, fall, and termination 
of rivers ; the distribution and magnitude of lakes ; and the 
extent, depth, tidal and other movements of the oceanic 
waters. 

5. The Third Part treats of the operations of the atmosphere 
which surrounds our globe. It describes the laws which set the 
winds in motion, and the causes which influence their direction 
and velocity ; it explains the phenomena of moisture, dew, rain, 

Qicestio s.—l. What is Physical Geography? To what docs it relate? 2. Into how- 
many parts may it be divided 1 Name the subjects to which they relate. S. What does 
the first part describe? To what does it also relate? 4. To what does the second part 
relate? 5. Of what does the third part treat? What does it describe ? 6. To what does 
the fourth part relate ? What does it describe ? 



snow, and hail, and the various causes which are concerned in 
the regulation of climate. 

6. The Fourth Part relates to organic existence, or the ani- 
mals and plants distributed over the globe. It describes the 
great natural divisions of plants, the agencies which contribute 
to their diffusion, the food plants, and the regions where they 
are produced. It presents the orders of the animal kingdom, 
shows its diversity of organization, and its diffusion, and ex- 
plains the zoological character of the different portions of the 
world. 

7. ITie facts of Physical Geography are of a more permanent character 
than those which relate to the civil or political affairs of mankind. The 
houndaries of nations are frequently changed, either by conquests or treaties ; 
new countries become peopled, and new states and territories organized ; 
populous cities spring suddenly into existence ; and the arts of civilization 
are rapidly carried to distant quarters of the earth. The varying condition 
of countries with respect to population, Internal improvements, boundary 
lines, etc., is such as to require a constant correction of maps and statistical 
works, in order to make them correct exponents of political affairs. 

8. Such fluctuations do not belong to the science of Physical Geography. 
The grand and majestic features which God has impressed on the face of our 
globe— its continents and oceans — its mountains, valleys, rivers, and lakes, — 
remain now, with all their prominent characteristics, very nearly the same 
as they have existed for centuries past. 

9. It is true that natural agencies are at work, changing to a limited ex- 
tent the face of nature. Volcanic action has rent the crust of the earth in 
numerous places, raising some portions and depressing others ; some rivers 
have worked new channels, and formed extensive deltas at their mouths ; 
and, as in Holland, vast areas of land have been rescued from the ocean by 
embankments and artificial modes of drainage. These and other alterations, 
considerable as they may appear, are comparatively unimportant as regards 
the world at large, and scarcely serve to qualify the remark, that the physical 
aspect of the earth has not greatly changed in modern times. 

10. From what is here observed it must not be inferred that the earth 
has not been the scene of mighty convulsions. An examination of its sur- 
face shows that at very early periods most important changes successively 
took place. To explain those changes, and the causes which have led to 
the present state or condition of the earth belongs properly to the science 
of Geology. 

11. Physical Geography explains many interesting facts of Civil Geogra- 
phy. It shows where nature has provided for the growth of cities, the peo- 
pling of states, the construction of railroads, canals, and other works of 
internal improvement ; it points out what courses on the ocean the mariner 
must pursue in order to avail himself of its favoring winds and currents ; 
and it explains what pursuits are best adapted to the people of different 
countries. The influence of mountains, rivers, seas, climate, and natural 
productions on the industry of people and the progress of nations is so great, 
that it is scarcely possible for one to possess a thorough knowledge of general 
geography without first understanding those facts which Physical Geography 
describes. 

Questions— T. What is said of the facts of Physical Geography ? Illustrate. Varying 
condition of countries ? 8. Do such fluctuations belong to the science of Physical Geogra- 
phy? 9. How are certain changes of the earth's surface produced ? What is observed of 
these alterations ? 10. What does an examination of the earth's surface show ? AVhat belongs 
to the science of Geology? 11. Why is a knowledge of Physical Geography important? 



PART I. 



THE LAND 




LESSON I. 

EXTENT AND DISTKIBUTION OF THE LAND. 

HE surface of the earth consists 
of unequal portions of land and 
water. It has been estimated 
to contain about 196,500,000 
English square miles. Of this 
area, the dry land is supposed to 
occupy about 51,000,000 square 
miles. Hence it will be seen the 
fluid portion predominates over 
the solid in the ratio of about 
285 to 100. The extent of each 
division, however, can not be exactly ascertained, owing to the 
north and south polar regions not having been fully explored. 

13. There is but little regularity in the arrangement of the 
land upon the globe. In some parts the coast is indented by 
deep bays and gulfs, in others the land projects into the ocean 
in capes and promontories, while the islands are scattered 
throughout the ocean, either singly or in irregular groups. 

14. The distribution of the land is very unequal,— by far the 
greater portion being in the northern hemisphere. It has been 
calculated that there is about three times as much land north 
of the equator as south of it, and about two and a half times as 
much in the eastern as in the western hemisphere. 

Its distribution through the different zones is as follows : 

Southern Hemisphere. Sq. Miles. 

Antarctic Zone Unknown. 

Temperate Zone 3,305,000 



Northern Hemisphere. Sq. Miles. 

Arctic Zone 2,792,000 

Temperate Zone 24,488,000 

Torrid Zone 9,949,000 



Total 37,229,000 



Torrid Zone 10,466,000 



Total 13,771,000 




SOUTHERN HEMISPHERE. 



NORTHERN HEMISPHERE. 



15. The unequal distribution of the land may be most strik- 
ingly seen from an inspection of a map of the hemispheres, 
projected upon the plain of the horizon of London. The hemi- 
sphere, in which that city occupies the center, includes nearly 

Questions.— 12. Of what does the surface of the earth consist? How many square miles 
does it contain 1 Square miles of the land? In what proportion dors the fluid portion 
predominate over the solid ? Why can not the extent of each division he exactly ascer- 
tained ? 13. What is said of the arranzemeot of the land? Illustrate. 14. Wha is said 
of the distribution of the land ? Which hemisphere contains the greater portion, the 
northern or southern ? How much more land is there in the northern than in the southern 
hemisphere ? In the eastern than in the western ? 



all the land on the globe, while the other is almost covered with 
water. One may therefore be termed the continental or land 
hemisphere, and the other the oceanic or water hemisphere. 




WATER HEMISPHERE. 



LAND HEMISPHERE. 



Kote. — Before proceeding with the next lesson, the- student mill attend to the Map- 
Questions on the third page following. 



LESSON II. 

CONTINENTS. 

16. There are two continents, — the Eastern Continent, or 
Old World, which includes Europe, Asia, and Africa, and the 
Western Continent, or New World, which includes North and 
South America. The Eastern Continent is styled the Old 
World, from its being the only one known to Europeans pre- 
viously to the close of the fifteenth century. The terms Eastern 
and Western refer to the meridian of the Ferro Isles, from which 
longitude was formerly reckoned. 

17. The Western Continent is about 8,700 miles in length 
from north to south. The greatest breadth of the continent is 
about 3,250 miles, and its least breadth, in the center, across 
the Isthmus of Panama, about 30 miles. 

18. North America is the northern portion of the Western 
Continent. Its greatest length from north to south is about 
5,600 miles, and its greatest breadth about 3,100 miles. It 
contains an area of about 7,493,000 square miles. The main 
body of the continent may be included within a triangle, whose 
base extends along the northern shores and whose vertical angle 
is in Mexico. 

19. The eastern side of North America is penetrated by 
branches of the ocean, and consequently presents several penin- 
sulas, and the western projects the long peninsula of California. 
These indented shores, which give to the continent a coast-line 
of 27,800 miles, or 1 mile to every 270 square miles of surface, 
are, with numerous rivers and lakes, the means by which civili- 

Qvestions. — 15. How may Ihe unequal distribution of the land be most strikingly seen ? 
Which hemisphere includes nearly all the land ? How termed ? 10. How many conti- 
nents are there, and what countries do they respectively include ? Why is the Eastern 
Continent styled the Old World ? To what do the terms Eastern and Western refer ? 
17. Length of the Western Continent? Greatest breadlh ? Least breadth ? IS. Length 
and breadth of North America? Area? General form of the contnent? 19. What is the 
character of ihc coast-line ? Extent of coast-line ? 



CONTINENTS. 



3 



zation and commerce have been extended, and are now rapidly 
extending into the interior. 

20. Among the numerous indentations of the Atlantic coast 
south of Labrador, are the Gulf of St. Lawrence, Bay of Fundy, 
Passamaquoddy Bay, Penobscot Bay, Massachusetts Bay, Cape 
Cod Bay, Buzzard Bay, Narraganset Bay, New York Bay, 
Raritan Bay, Delaware Bay, Chesapeake Bay, Albemarle Sound, 
Pamlico Sound, Gulf of Mexico, Bay of Honduras, etc. 

21. South America is the smaller of the two divisions of the 
Western Continent. Its greatest length from north to south is 
about 4,600 miles, and its greatest breadth from east to west 
about 3,000 miles ; its area is about 6,679,000 square miles. Its 
form is triangular. Its unbroken coast-line of 15,800 miles in 
extent, gives only a mile of sea-coast for every 423 square miles 
of surface, and presents few r bays or even harbors. 

22. The slow progress of civilization in South America has been attributed 
in a great measure to the -want of bays and gulfs extending inland and af- 
fording maritime advantages to the interior regions This disadvantage 
of unbroken coast-line is partly counterbalanced by the vast navigable 
streams of the Orinoco, Amazon, La Plata, and their branches. 



LESSON III. 



CONTINENTS (coxtiotbd). 

23. The Eastern Continent is the largest mass of land upon 
the globe. It extends for about 10,000 miles from east to west, 
and about 7,800 from north to south. It contains an area of 
about 30,800,000 square miles, or about two and a sixth times 
as many as the Western Continent. 

24. Europe is the smallest of the five grand divisions. Its 
greatest length from Cape St. Vincent, in the southw T est, to the 
Gulf of Kara, in the northeast, is about 3,500 miles ; its great- 
est breadth, from North Cape to Cape Matapan, is about 2,400 
miles. The area of its surface, excluding the islands, amounts 
to about 3,506,000 square miles. 

25. Europe is indented by numerous bays and seas on its 




.tiAELESASD VESUVIUS , . 

BAY OF NAPLES. 

western and southern sides, in consequence of which the coast- 
Line is of great extent, and in proportion larger than that of any 
other of the grand divisions. Its line of shores extends 20,000 
miles; it therefore enjoys a mile of coast-line for every 175 

Questions.— 20. Principal indentations of the Atlantic coast south of Labrador? 21. 
What is said of South America ? Greatest length ? Breadth ? Area ? Form ? Extent 
of coast-line? 22. Slow progress of civilization in South America? What compensation 
is there for Its unbroken coast-line ? 23. What is said of the Eastern Continent ? Its 
length and breadth? Area? 2i. What is the comparative size of Europe ? Its length 
and breadth? Area? 25. What is said of its coast indentation? Exteut of sea-coast? 



square miles of surface, thus possessing great facilities for com- 
mercial enterprise. Europe is essentially the region of penin- 
sular formations : it embraces the Scandinavian Peninsula 
(Norway and Sweden) ; the Peninsula of Denmark ; the Penin- 
sula of Spain and Portugal ; the peninsulas of Italy and Greece. 

26. Asia is the largest of the grand divisions of the earth. 
Its greatest length from east to west is about 5,600 miles, and 
its greatest breadth from north to south about 5,300 miles. It; 
contains an area of about 15,909,000 square miles, or consid- 
erably more than is contained in both North and South America. 
It has a coast-line of 35,000 miles, and excluding the Arctic 
Ocean, which is scarcely navigable, there will be only 1 mile 
of sea-coast for every 454 miles of surface. 

27. Africa, like South America, is a vast peninsula, being 
entirely surrounded by the waters of the ocean, except at the 
Isthmus of Suez, by which it is connected to Asia. Its greatest 
length from north to south is about 5,600 miles, and its great- 
est breadth from east to west about 4,700 miles. Its area is 
about 11,396,000 square miles. In consequence of its peculiar 
form, with no considerable peninsulas or sea indentations, its 
coast-fine is only 16,000 miles, or only 1 mile of sea-coast for 
every 712 square miles of surface. On this account it is the most 
inaccessible, least civilized, and least known to civilized nations. 

28. The following table exhibits the superficial extent of each grand 
division in English square miles, together with the length of coast-line pos- 
sessed by each (in English miles), and the proportion which the latter of 
these measures bears to the former : 



Grand Divisions. 


Area. 


Coast-line. 


Sq. Miles of 
Area fur One 
Mile of Coast. 




7,493,000 

6,679,000 

3,506.000 

15.909.000 

11,396,000 


27,800 
15.800 
20,000 
35.000 
16.000 


270 




423 




175 




454 




712 



GENERAL REMAKES ON THE CONTINENTS. 

29. If we examine the map of the world, we may notice sev- 
eral features of similarity between the two continents. (1.) 
Each expands into broad extensive flats toward the north, 
w T hile toward the south they narrow down to points, offering a 
rude resemblance to an inverted pyramid. 

30. (2.) Both attain their greatest breadth about the parallel 
of 50° N., and are cut off by the ocean at about latitude 70 J . 

31. (3.) Each has a large portion of its area nearly detached ; 
South America being joined to North America by the Isthmus 
of Panama, about 30 miles broad, and Africa being appended 
to Asia by the Isthmus of Suez, about 75 miles broad. 

32. (4.) The peninsulas of both continents follow a southerly 
direction — as Scandinavia (embracing Sweden and Norway), 
Spain, Italy, Greece, Africa, Arabia, India, Malacca, Cambodia, 
Corea, and Kamtchatka in the one, and South America, Cali- 
fornia, Florida, and Alaska in the other. There are few im- 
portant exceptions to this rule ; as the Peninsula of Yucatan, 
in Central America, and of Denmark, in Europe, which project 
toward the north. 



Questions. — What is said of its peninsular character? What large peninsulas doe3 
it embrace? 26. Comparative extent of Asia ? Its length and breadth? Area? Coast- 
line? 27. What is said of Africa ? lis length and breadth ? Area? Extent of coast-line ? 
29. What tray be noticed by examining a map of the world ? What is the first feature 
of similarity mentioned? 30. What is the second ? 81. What the third ? 32. The fourth ? 
What exceptions are there to the fourth remark ? 



THE LAND. 



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33. The great point of dissimilarity between the Eastern 
Continent and the Western is in the prevailing direction of the 
land, which extends from east to west in the former, and from 
north to south in the latter. 

JS4. Comparing the western shores of Europe and Africa 
with the eastern shores of North and South America, a mutual 
adaptation to unite may be observed in the advancing and 
retreating shape of the land. Thus .the great convexity of 
Western Africa is opposite to the indentation of the Gulf of 
Mexico, and the convexity of the Brazilian shore is opposite to 
the Gulf of Guinea. The idea has been entertained, from this 
peculiar outline, that the two continents once formed an undi- 
vided territory, which some great convulsion separated. 



LESSON IV. 

ISLANDS. 

35. Islands differ vastly in size, some being miniature conti- 
nents, with systems of mountains, rivers, and lakes, while others 
are mere banks of sand or points of rocks just raised above the 
level of the waves. The largest island in the world is Austra- 
lia; it is 2,400 miles from east to west, 1,700 miles from north 
to south, and contains an area of about 3,000,000 square miles. 
Its extent of coast-line is about 8,000 miles. 

36. The following table exhibits the area of some of the largest islands, 
and their relative size, as compared with the area of the State of New York 
(46,220 square miles). 



Name. 


Area in Square 
Miles. 


Compara- 
tive Size. 


STATE OF HEW 'SERK 


46,220 

30,000 
32,515 
36,000 
43,000 

83,827 
120,000 
200,000 
200,000 
270,000 
3,000.000 


1.00 




.65 




.70 




.78 




.90 


Great Britain, including England, Wales, and Scot- 


1.82 




2.59. 




4 33 




4.33 




5.08 




64.81 







37. Of the small islands, the most remarkable is Rockall, in 
the North Atlantic ; it is only a hundred yards in circumference, 
and is situated 260 miles from the north coast of Ireland, and 
180 from any other land. 

38. Islands occur under various conditions, in chains, clusters, 
archipelagoes, or singly. 

39. The principal chains are adjacent to some main shore, 
and on this account they are sometimes termed continental 
islands. They are long in proportion to their breadth, and 
follow each other in succession along the margin of the conti- 
nents. America offers numerous examples of this kind of islands. 
On the northwestern coast there is a long chain of them, begin- 
ning with Vancouver's Island on the south. Another range 

Questions.— 33. What is the great point of dissimilarity between the Eastern and West- 
ern continents 1 34. What may be observed by comparing the western shores ol Europe 
and Asia with the eastern shores of North and South America V 35. llow do islands differ ? 
The largest island and its extent? 36. What is the area of Iceland, and what its relative 
size as compared with the State of New York? Ireland? Newfoundland? Cuba? Great 
Eritain ? Sumatra ? Papua, or New Guinea ? Madagascar ? Borneo ? Australia 1 
87. Give particulars of the island of Rockall. 3S. Under what various conditions do islands 
occur ? 89. Where are the principal chains ? Shape and arrangement ? What chains be- 
longing to America are mentioned ? Other instances ? 



6 



THE LAND. 



occurs at the southern extremity of South America, extending 
from Chiloe to Cape Horn. To this class also belong the Aleu- 
tian Isles, which form a chain between North America and 
Asia, in the North Pacific, and the Kurile and Japan Isles, 
stretching along the eastern Asiatic coast. 

40. Clusters, sometimes called oceanic islands, are those 
which occur at a distance from continents. They are very 
numerous in the Pacific and Indian oceans. They usually con- 
tain one or two principal members centrally situated with 
reference to others of smaller size, as, for example, the Marque- 
sas and Society groups. 

41. An archipelago is a sea interspersed with numerous isl- 
ands. The term archipelago was originally applied to those 
islands which lie between the shores of Greece and Asia Minor. 
The principal archipelagoes are the Caribbean, or Antilles, in 
the West Indies ; the Maldive and Laccadive, in the Indian 
Ocean ; the Dangerous, Louisiade, and Great Cyclades, in the 
Pacific Ocean. 

42. Single islands at a great distance from any other shore 
are of rare occurrence. St. Helena, remarkable for being the 




■wSyrWc 




ST. HELENA. 

place of Napoleon's last exile, is. 1,800 miles from the coast of 
Brazil, 1,200 from the coast of Africa, and 680 from Ascension 
Island, the nearest point of land. Ascension Island is also 520 
miles from its next neighbor, the Isle of St. Matthew. 

43. A vast number of islands are volcanic. Some are at 
present the scenes of fiery convulsions. "Volcanic islands are 
found principally in the Indian and Pacific oceans, though some 
occur in high northern and southern latitudes. They are 
characterized by a considerable elevation, with a precipitous 
coast. 

44. In the Grecian Archipelago, the Old Kaimeni, a small 
islet, was thrown up somewhat more than two centuries before 
the Christian era. A second appeared in the year 1573, called 
the Little Kaimeni, and a third was formed in the year 1707, 
called the New Kaimeni. 

45. In the year 1811, the temporary island of Sabrina rose 
off the coast of St. Michael, one of the Azores. It attained 
the height of 300 feet, was about a mile in circumference, 
but gradually subsided, and wholly disappeared by the close 
of February, 1812. In 1813 there were five hundred feet of 
water at the sjiot. 



Questions.— 40. What are clusters? Where numerous? now usually arranged ? Ex- 
amples? 41. What is an archipelago? How originally applied ? Principal archipelagoes? 
42. What is said of single islands? St. Helena? Ascension Island ? 45. What is said 
of volcanic islands? Where principally found ? How characterized? 44. What volcanic 
islands were formed in the Grecian Archipelago? 45. Give the particulars of the forma- 
tion and disappearance of the island of Sabrina. 46. Of Graham Island. 47. Islands and 
reefs in the Indian and Pacific oceans ? To what owing? 



46. The most recent 
instance of an island 
formed by volcanic ac- 
tion was Graham Isl- 
and, which rose in 
: the Mediterranean Sea, 
southwest of Sicily, in 
July, 1831. A col- 
umn of water was seen 
rising from the sea like 
a water-spout, followed 
by dense steam, and 
an island which gained 
the height of 200 feet, 
graham island. and a circumference of 

three miles. Toward the close of the year, this island grad- 
ually sank beneath the waves, forming a dangerous shoal. 




LESSON V. 

CORAL ISLANDS. 

47. A vast number of islands and reefs* in the Pacific and 
Indian oceans are of coral formation. They owe their exist- 
ence to the work of countless myriads of the coral-polyps, 
which inhabit those seas, and which flourish only iu the warmer 
regions of the globe. 

48. Coralline structures are sometimes of enormous extent. 
On the northeast coast of Australia is a reef of coral called the 
Great Barrier Reef, having a length of nearly 1,000 miles, and 
being in one part unbroken for a distance of 350 miles. Some 
groups of coral islands in the Pacific are from 1,100 to 1,200 
miles in length, by 300 or 400 in breadth, as the Dangerous and 
Radack archipelagoes, for example. The Maldive Islands, sit- 
uated in the Indian Ocean, forming a chain of 470 geographical 
miles, are composed throughout of a series of circular assem- 
blages of islets, all formed of coral. 

49. The following deseription of coral animals and their operations is from 
Hughes' " Manual of Geography :" " The coral reefs of the Pacific, as well 
as those in other parts of the glohe, are all produced by the secretions of the 
coral insect, and the process by which they are formed is one of the most 
curious and instructive phenomena which the natural world presents to view. 
The architects of these wonderful structures are polyps of minute size, and of 
various species, but all possessing a general similarity of form and structure. 
They consist, to appearance, of a little oblong bag of jelly, closed at one end, 
but having the other extremity open, and surrounded by tentacles (usually 
six or eight in number), set like the rays of a star. 

50. " Multitudes of these tiny creatures are associated in the secretion of a 
common stony skeleton, that is, the coral, or madrepore, in the minute 
orifices of which they reside, protruding their mouths and tentacles when 
under the water ; but the moment they are molested, or become exposed to 
the atmosphere, withdrawing by sudden contraction into their holes. It is 
proved by observation that these creatures are unable to exist at a greater 
depth than twenty or thirty fathoms ; so that the numberless coral islands 
of the Pacific, and other seas, must be based upon submarine rocks or mount- 
ains, though it was at one time supposed that they were raised, by the pro- 
cess described above, from the bottom of the sea." 

Questions. — 4S. Extent of coralline structures ? Great Barrier Reef ? Groups in the In- 
dian and Pacific oceans? Examples? Maldive Islands? 49. Coral reefs, how formed ? 
Architects of these wonderful structures? Of what do they consist? 50 Describe the op- 
erations of the coral insects. To what depth do they exist? Upon what must coral islands 
be based? 

* Reef, a chain or range of rocks lying at or near the surface of the water. 



CORAL ISLANDS. 



51. Coral formations are of four different kinds, namely, 
atolls, or lagoon islands, encircling reefs, barrier-reefs, and 
coral fringes. 

52. An atoll consists of a circular strip or ring of coral sur- 
rounding a shallow lake or lagoon in its center. The circular 
reefs just raise themselves above the level of the sea, with an 
average breadth of a quarter of a mile, oftener less, and are 
surrounded by a deep and often unfathomable ocean. The 
annexed cut represents one of these circular islands inclosing 
a lagoon of tranquil water. 




CORAL ISLAND. 



The usual form of such islands may be seen in the section 
below. 

7, 



f ,Tsa 



^fttHH 



•d;~LjJ 



.: ■ ■ . - ■ „... 

SECTION OP A CORAL ISLAND. 

a, a, habitable part of the island, consisting of a strip of coral, inclosing a 
lagoon, b, b, the lagoon. 

53. Lagoons are found in a very large proportion of the coral 
islands. They were found in twenty-nine out of the thirty-two 
islands visited by Beechey in his voyage to the Pacific. The 
largest was thirty miles in diameter, and the smallest less than 
a mile. There is almost always a dee]) narrow passage opening 
into the lagoon, generally on the leeward side, which is kept 
opien by the efflux of the sea, as the tide goes clown, and through 
this channel ships may sail into the inclosed waters and find a 
good harbor. 

54. Encircling-reefs are those which extend around mount- 
ainous islands, commonly at a distance of two or three miles 
from the shore, rising on the outside from a very deep ocean, 
and separated from the land by a channel 200 or 300 feet deep. 
The Caroline Archipelago exhibits examples of this structure. 
Otaheite (Tahiti), the largest of the Society group, is an in- 
stance of an encircled island of the most beautiful kind, being 
hemmed in from the ocean by a coral band, at a distance vary- 
ing from half a mile to three miles. 

55. Barrier-reefs are similar in their structure to the two 
preceding classes, but differ from them in their position with 
regard to the land. The largest of this class is the Great 
Barrier Reef off the northeast coast of Australia, before alluded 
to (48). It rises up in the ocean at an average distance of from 

Questions.— 51. Kinds of coral formations? 52. The atoll? What does it surround? 
Height of the circular reef? Breadth? How surrounded? 53. Lagoons? Lagoons 
found by Beechey ? Their extent ? Openings into lagoons ? 54. Encircling-reefs ? Ex- 
ample ? Otaheite 1 55. Barrier-reefs 1 The largest of this class ? 



20 to 30 miles from the shore, and extends to the distance of 
about 1,000 miles. 

56. The action of the waves as they dash upon this reef has been admi- 
rably described: "The long ocean-swell being suddenly impeded by this 
barrier, lifted itself in one great continuous ridge of deep blue water, which, 
curling over, fell on the edge of the reef in an unbroken cataract of dazzling 
white foam. Each line of breaker ran often one or two miles in length with 
not a perceptible gap in its continuity. There was a simple grandeur and 
display of power and beauty in this scene that rose even to sublimity. The 
unbroken roar of the surf, with its regular pulsation of thunder, as each suc- 
ceeding swell fell first on' the outer edge of the reef, was almost deafening, 
yet so deep-toned as not to interfere with the slightest nearer and sharper 

sound But the sound and sight were such as to impress the 

spectator with the consciousness of standing in the presence of an over- 
whelming majesty and power." 

57. The Florida reefs are of this class. By examining a map 
of the waters south of Florida, it will be seen that they are 
studded with a range of islands called the Florida Keys. These 
keys rise but a few feet, perhaps from six to eight or ten, or at 
the utmost to twelve or thirteen feet above the level of the sea. 
They begin to the north of Cape Florida, and extend in a south- 
westerly direction, gradually receding from the land until op- 
posite Cape Sable. Farther to the west they project in a more 
westerly course as far as the Tortugas Islands, which form the 
most western group. Most of these islands are small, the 
largest of them, such as Key "West and Key Largo, not ex- 
ceeding ten or fifteen miles in length ; others only two or three, 
and many scarcely a mile. Their width varies from a quarter 
to a third or half of a mile, the largest barely measuring a mile 
across. 

58. The reef extends parallel to the main range of keys, for a 
few miles south or southeast of it, following the same curve, 
and never receding many miles from it. The distance be- 





tween the reef and the main range of keys varies from six 
to two or three miles. Between this reef and the main range 
of keys there is a broad, navigable channel, extending the 
whole length of the reef, varying in depth from eighteen to 
forty feet. 

Questions.— Describe the appearance of this reef. 5T. To what class do the Florida 
reefs belong ? Island south of Florida ? The height ? Where do they begin and where 
extend? Their s ! ze ? 53 Where does the reef extend ? Distance between the reef and 
the main range of keys ? Channel ? 



THE L A X D . 



59. The great danger of this reef arises from the fact that 
throughout its whole range it does not reach the surface of the 
sea, except in a few points, where it conies almost to the level 
of low- water mark. It therefore presents a range of most dan- 
gerous shoal grounds, upon which thousands of vessels, as well 
as millions of property, have been wrecked. 

60. Coral-fringes are those formations which extend along 
the margin of a shore, and have no lagoons. 

61. Captain Basil Hall, in his " Voyage to Loo-Choo," makes the follow- 
ing ohservations on coral islands : ""The examination of a coral reef during 
the different stages of one tide is particularly interesting. When the sea 
has left it for some time, it becomes dry, and appears to be a compact rock 
exceedingly hard and ragged ; but no sooner does the tide rise again, and 
the waves begin to wash over it, than millions of coral worms protrude them- 
selves from holes on the surface which were before quite invisible. These 
animals are of a great variety of shapes and sizes, and in such prodigious 
numbers, that in a short time the whole surface of the rock appears to he 
alive and in motion. 

62. " The most common of the worms at Loo-Choo (an island in the 
Pacific east of China), was in the form of a star, with anns from four to six 
inches long, which it moved about with a rapid motion in all directions, 
probably in search of food. Others were so sluggish that they were often 
mistaken for pieces of the rock ; these were generally of a dark color, and 
from four to five inches long and two or three round, When the rock was 
broken from a spot near the level of high water, it was found to be a hard, 
solid stone ; but if any part of it were detached at a level to which the tide 
reached every day, it was discovered to be full of worms, all of different 
lengths and colors, some being as fine as thread and several feet long, gen- 
erally of a very bright yellow, and sometimes of a blue color ; while others 
resembled snails, and some were not unlike lobsters and prawns in shape, hut 
not above two inches long. 

63. '• The growth of coral ceases when the worm which creates it is no 
longer exposed to the washing of the tide. Thus a reef rises in the form of a 
gigantic cauliflower, till its top has gained the level of the highest tides, above 
which the worm has no power to carry its operations, and the reef, conse- 
quently, no longer extends itself upward. The surrounding parts, how- 
ever, advance in succession till they reach the surface, where they also must 
stop. Thus, as the level of the highest tide is the eventual limit to every 
part of the reef, a horizontal field comes to be formed coincident with that 
plane, and perpendicular on all sides. The reef, however, contlnuallv in- 
creases, and being prevented from going higher, must extend itself laterally 
in all directions ; and this growth being probably as rapid at the upper 
edge as it is lower down, the steepness of the face of the reef is preserved ; 
and it is this circumstance which renders this species of rock so dangerous 
to navigation. In the first place, they are seldom seen above the water ; 
and in the next, their sides are so abrupt that a ship's bows may strike 
against the rock before any change of soundings indicates the approach of 
danger. 

64. " For a long time it was supposed that the coral formations were 
raised from the floor of the fathomless ocean by the unaided efforts of 
these little creatures, but more accurate observations have proved that 
the animals cease to live at a greater depth than twenty or thirty fath- 
oms As some of .these islands are elevated 200 and 300 feet 

above the sea-level, it is evident that they must have been raised by sub- 
marine forces ; in short, that the volcano and the earthquake must have 
been employed in rearing them to their present elevation. Mr. Darwin has 
traced those regions throughout the Pacific, in which upheaval and de- 
pression alternately prevail. Thus a band of atolls and encircled islands, 
including the Dangerous and Society archipelagoes, constitutes an area of 
subsidence more than 4.000 miles long and 600 broad. To the westward, the 
chain of f ringing-reefs, embracing the islands of the New Hebrides. Solomon, 
and New Ireland, form an area of elevated coral. Farther westward, an- 
other area of subsidence is met with, including the islands of New Cale- 
donia, and the Australian barrier." 



LESSON VI. 

MOUNTAINS. 



Questions.— Si. Danger of this reef? Vessels and property destroyed? 60. Coral- 
fringes ? 65. What are mountains ? What is said of their heights ? Uses of mountains ? 
66. Insulated mountains? Examples? What is the usual arrangement of mountains? 
To what is the term system applied ? 




65. Motrs-rArxs are the most 
considerable elevations of the 
surface of the earth. They are 
of various heights, the loftiest 
having an elevation of more 
citmbln-g i™ "ss. tnarl g ve m ji es above the level 

of the sea. Though generally sterile, and unsuited for the resi- 
dence of man, they have their uses in the economy of nature. 
They accumulate the moisture of the clouds, and feed the rivers 
which water and fertilize the plains below. They increase the 
surface of the earth, and consequently its productions. To 
their gigantic proportions, their lofty projections, and their 
broken and varied fcr as, are we largely indebted for sublime 
and savage, or beautiful and picturesque scenery. 

66. There are but few insulated mountains, or mountains re- 
mote from other masses, and ascending abruptly from a level 
country. The examples are chiefly volcanic, as Mount Eg- 
mont, in Xew Zealand, and the Peak of Teneriffe, on one of the 
Canary Islands. The usual arrangement is in groups or chains, 
the members of which are connected at the base. The term 
si/stem is applied to a series of chains, groups, and parallel 
ranges lying in the same general direction, though detached. 
The highest jioints are usually about the middle of the range. 

67. The great mountain systems of the two continents follow 
the prevailing direction of the land in each; those of the West- 
ern "World running north and south ; those of the Eastern, east 
and west. The course of secondary chains, as the Apennines 
in Italy, the Dovre-field in Norway, and the Ghauts in India, 
corresponds with the greatest length of those peninsulas. 

68. The highest known mountain on the globe is Mount 
Everest or Gahoorishanka, in Asia. It belongs to the Himalaya 
range, and is situated in about longitude S6 D 50' east. Its 
summit is 29,002 feet above the level of the sea. In the same 
range, to the east, is Kunehiujinga, the next in height (2S.1T8 
feet), and which was, until recently, considered the highest 



Ques'tons.— 67. Direction of the great mountain systems of the two continents? Course 
of the secondary chains? 6S. The highest known mountain, its situation and height? 
Kunehiujinga ? Xante and height of the loftiest mountain in South America ? In North 
America? In Africa? In Europe? 



mountains. 



9 



mountain on the globe. According to recent statements the 
loftiest mountains known in the other four grand divisions are, 
in South America, Tupungato, one of the Chilean Andes (22,450 
feet) ; in North America, Popocatapetl, in the volcanic chain 
of southern Mexico (17,884 feet) ; in Africa, Mount Kenia (sup- 
posed about 20,000 feet) ; in Europe, Mount Blanc (15,760 

feet). 

69. The mountains of the torrid zone are capable of being in- 
habited by man to a very considerable height. Under the 
equator the line of perpetual 
snow is not less than about 
16,000 feet above the level of 
the sea. As we approach to- 
ward the poles this line grad- 
ually descends, rendering the 
mountains of the temperate 3§ 
zones inhabitable to no very 'Jg 
considerable elevation. On 
Mount Blanc the snow-line is 
about 8,500 feet above the 
sea-level, and at the height of 6,000 feet the climate is of very 
great severity. 

70. Table of the heights above the sea of some remarkable inhabited sites. 

Feet. I Feet. 




MOUNT CHIjIBORAZO. 



Geneva, Switzerland 1,450 

Madrid, Spain 2,170 

Jerusalem, Mount Zion 2,200 

Priory of Chamouni, Switzer- 
land 3,346 

Palace of the Escurial, Spain . . 3,520 

Teheran, Persia 3,785 

Ispahan, " ..4,140 

Great Salt Lake City, TJ. S. . . . 4,300 
Hampelbaude, highest inhabit- 
ed house of Prussia 4,300 

Splugen, village, Switzerland.. 4,711 
Mont Louis, Eastern Pyrenees, 

highest town of France 5,171 

Cabool, Afghanistan 6,380 

Post-house on Mont Cenis, 

Alps 6,453 

Soglio, village in the Grisons, 

highest village in Europe . . . 6,714 
Hospital of St. Gothard, Alps. . 6,808 

Mexico, city 7,570 

Arequipa, city, Peru 7,852 



Hospital of the Great St. Ber- 
nard, Alps 8,170 

Santa Fe de Bogota, capital of 

New Granada 8,650 

Chuquisaca, capital of Bolivia. . 9,250 
Pass of Santa Maria, Alps, high- 
est permanent habitation in 

Europe 9,272 

Quito, capital of Equador 9,540 

Ladak, city, Little Tibet 9,995 

Cuzco, ancient capital of Peru. 11,380 

La Paz, city, Bolivia 12,226 

Puno, city, Peru 12,870 

Villages on south side of the 

Himalayas 13,000 

Potosi, Bolivia, highest city of 

the globe 13.350 

An ti sana, shepherds' huts, 

Equador 13,354 

Tacora, village, Peru 13,690 

Burnihausi, post-house, Peru . .15,540 
Ancomarca, " ..15,724 



71. The summits of the loftiest mountains have never been 
reached, though some adventurous travelers have attained 
heights where man can find no local habitation. The difficulties 
encountered in ascending elevated mountains arise from the 
precipitous character of the surface, the vast accumulation of 
snow, the intense cold, and the rarity or thinness of the atmo- 
sphere. Travelers have found the rarefied atmosphere on high 
mountains to cause a bleeding from the nose and eyes, and to 
produce other unpleasant effects. 

72. In the following list are given some remarkable heights which have 
been reached : 

Questions. — 69. Habitation of mountains in the torrid zone ? The line of perpetual snow 
Tinder the equator ? Toward the poles ? 70. Height of Geneva ? Madrid ? Jerusalem ? 
Great Salt Lake City? Mexico? Santa Fe de Bogota ? Chuquisaca? Quito? Potosi? 
Shepherds' huts, Equador? The post-house, Eumihausi, Peru? 71. What is said of 
heights attained by adventurous travelers ? The difficulty of ascending elevated mount- 
ains ? 72. Name the heights reached on the following mountams, and by whom : Mount 
Blanc, Jungfrau, Ortler Spitz, Peak of Demavend, Ararat, Pamir, Peter Botte, Mouna- 
Kaah, Mount Egmont, Silla de Caraccas, Pichincha, Chimborazo. 



Sites. Karnes. Dates. 

Mount Blanc, Alps Dr. Paccard and James Baltna Aug., 1736 

Jungfrau, " The brothers Meyer, of Arau — 1811 

Ortler Spitz, " Three peasants of the Tyrol — 1804. 

Peak of Demavend Mr. Taylor Thompson, 1st European .. Sept. °, 1837 

Ararat Professor Parrot, and five attendants. .Oct. 9, IS29 

Pamir, Central Asia Lieutenant John Wood Feb. 19, 1S3S. 

Peter Botte, Mauritius Captain Lloyd and officers Sept. 7, 1S32. 

Mouna-Kaah, Owhyhee Mr. David Douglas Jan., 1S34. 

Mount Egmont, New Zealand. Dr. Dieffenbach Dec, 1840. 

Silla de Caraccas Humboldt and Bonpland Jan., 1S00. 

Pichincha, Andes Bouguer and Condamine — 1736. 

Chimborazo, " A. von Humboldt June 23, 1S02. 

Purgeool, Himalaya Captain A. Gerard Oct., ISIS. 

Chimborazo, Andes, point ") 



Heights. 

.15,750 
.12,872 
.12,850 
.14,700 
.17,210 
.15,600 
. 2,800 
.13.5ST 
. 8,839 
. S,6S3 
.15.924 
.19,2S6 
.19,411 



reached, highest point of ! 
the globe ever attained 
by man. 



M. Boussintrault and Colonel Hall . 




LESSON VII. 

THE MOUNTAIN" SYSTEMS OF THE WESTERN" CONTINENT. 
73. North American Mountains. — North America con- 
tains three great mountain systems, — the Rocky Mountains, the 
mountains of the "West Coast, and the Apalachian system. It 
embraces besides, the elevated regions of the Ozark Mountains, 
the highlands of Labrador and the Arctic coast, and the mount- 
ain traversed plateaus of Mexico and Central America. 

74. The Rocky ^^^gj^^ 
Mountains constitute 
the most extensive 
mountain system of 
North America. They 
extend ' from north to 
south through all the 
wider parts of the con- 
tinent ; or from the 
shores of the Arctic 
Ocean on the north 
to about the parallel 
of 32° on the south. rocky mountain scenery. 

The northern portion is divided into numerous ranges, with 
hardly more elevation than from one to two thousand feet. As 
they advance southward their height increases, and many of 
their summits rise above the snow-line. They attain the most 
considerable elevations between the 55th and 38th parallels. 
The average heights between these limits is from seven to 
eight thousand feet. The highest known summits of the sys- 
tem are Mount Broicn (15,690 feet) and Mount Hooker (15,700 
feet), both near the line of the 52d parallel. 

75. Numerous passes occur in the range of the Bocky 
Mountains, the most noted of which is that known as the 
South Bass, near the 41st parallel. It is at an altitude of more 
than 7,000 feet above the level of the sea, and affords a passage 
so easy of access that a wagon drawn by horses might travel 
through it. Thousands of emigrants, with their cattle, every 
year traverse this pass on their way to the valleys of the Bacific. 

76. The Mountains of the West Coast extend along the Ba- 
cific, from Cape St. Lucas to the Beninsula of Alaska. They 

Questions. — 73. What three great mountain systems does North America contain ? 
What other elevated regions does it embrace ? 74. What is said of the Rocky Mount- 
ains ? Where do they extend ? What is said of the northern portion ? Where do 
they attain the most considerable elevation ? What is the average height between 
these limits ? Which are the highest summits of the system ? 75. Where is the prin- 
cipal pass situated ? What is said of it ? 76. Where do the mountains of the West 
Coast extend ? What minor ranges do they embrace ? What peaks, their height and situa- 
tion ? What is said of the Sierra Nevada ? Where do the gold regions of California lie? 



10 



THE LAND. 



embrace the Sierra Nevada of California and the Cascade 
Mange of Oregon. Among the elevated peaks are Mount 
Shista, in the Cascade Range (14,390 feet) ; Mount St. Elias, 
near the 60th parallel (17,900 feet) ; and Mount Fairioeather, 
near the 59th parallel (14,750 feet). The Sierra Nevada rises 
above the snow-line, and attains a main elevation of between 
seven and eight thousand feet. To the west of this range lie 
the gold regions of California. 

77. The Apalachian or Alleghany ranges constitute the 
third great mountain system of North America. They extend 
along the eastern side of the continent, and within the older 
settled portion of the United States. They terminate at the 
south near the 34th parallel, and at the north near the shores 
of the Gulf of St. Lawrence. This range is broken by the valley 
of the Hudson River and Lake Champlain. The southern por- 
tion (to which the term "Alleghany" is alone applied) consists 
of numerous parallel ridges separated by longitudinal valleys. 
The northeastern section embraces the Green Mountains of 
Vermont and the White Mountains of New Hampshire. The 
Adirondack Mountains, which extend through the northern 
part of New York to the west of Lake Champlain, form a part 
of this system. Intermediate between the Adirondack Mount- 
ains and the main range of the Alleghanies, lie the Catskill 
Mountains, which are terminated on the north by the valley 
of the Mohawk, and on the east by the Hudson River. 





^P:, 



TVH1TE MOUNTAINS. 



78. The Apalachian range extends a distance of 1,500 miles, 
with an average height of from 2,500 to 3,000 feet. Among 
the highest elevations are, Black Dome or MitchelVs High 
Peak, in North Carolina, the highest of the entire system 
(6,707 feet) ; Mount Washington of the White Mountains 



Questions.— It. What is said of the Apalachian or Alleghany range ? Where do they 
extend ? Where do they terminate at the south ? At the north ? Ey what valley is this 
range broken 1 What is said of the southern portion ? What mountains does the north- 
eastern section embrace? What is said of the Adirondack Mountains? The Catskill 
Mountains ? 78. What distance does the Apalachian range extend ? What is the average 
height? Which are among the highest summits? Give the height of each. 79. The 
Ozark Mountains ? What is their height? Describe the highlands of Labrador and the 
Arctic coast. SO. What is said of the principal mountains in Mexico ? What volcanio 
peaks lie along the line of the 19th parallel 1 



(6,288 feet) ; Mount Marcy of the Adirondack range, the high- 
est in New York (5,379 feet) ; and Mansfield Mountain, the 
highest of the Green Mountains (4,430 feet). 

79. The Ozark Mountains are about 300 miles in length, 
and extend from the State of Missouri through the northeast 
part of Arkansas into the Indian Territory. They vary from 
one f o two thousand feet in height. The highlands of Labrador 
and the Arctic coast have a very broken and rugged surface, 
and an average elevation of from one to two thousand feet. 
They contain a great number of lakes, and possess a climate 
of very great severity. 

80. The principal mountains in Mexico are isolated peaks, 
many of which are active volcanoes. Several of these peaks 
lie along the line of the 19th parallel: among them are Colima, 
Jorullo, Toluca, Poyjocatepetl, and Orizaba. 

81. South American Mountains. — South America likewise 
contains three mountain systems, — the chain of the Andes, the 
mountains of Guiana, and the mountains of Brazil. 

82. The Andes, or Cordilleras de los Andes {Chains of the 
Andes), commence on the north near the Isthmus of Panama, 
and run in a southerly direction to the Straits of Magellan. In 
the south of Chile and in Patagonia they form the coast-line, 
and at the greatest distance, in about the middle of Chile, are 
but 100 miles from the sea. Their general breadtli rarely ex- 
ceeds from 200 to 250 miles ; but between the 20th and 25th 
parallels they are upward of 400 miles across. 

83. The Andes are divided, according to the countries through 
which they extend, into the Columbian, Peruvian, Bolivian, 
Chilean, and Patagonian Andes. 

84. The Columbian Andes begin at the commencement of 
the mountainous region on the north, and extend to the 4th 
degree of south latitude. They have an average height of from 
11,000 to 12,000 feet, and the highest peaks exceed 20,000 feet. 
The most elevated of these is Chimboraso (21,424 feet), which 
was long supposed to be the loftiest mountain in the New 
World. 

85. The Peruvian and Bolivian Andes extend from the 4th 
to the 28th parallel of south latitude, and are remarkable for 
the great number of elevated summits they contain, several of 
which have an altitude of more than 20,000 feet. Many of the 
passes in this portion of the Andes are between 15,000 and 
16,000 feet in height. 

86. The Chilian Andes are remarkable for containing, ac- 
cording to recent reports, the highest known summit in the 
Western Continent — Tiqmngato, which attains an altitude of 
22,450 feet above the level of the sea. The Patagonian Andes 
rise abruptly from the shores of the Pacific, which they border 
to a distance of about 1,000 miles from Cape Horn to the 40th 
parallel of south latitude. The average height of the Patago- 
nian Andes is from 2,000 to 3,000 feet, though in some places 
they attain an elevation of 9,000 feet. 



Questions. — 81. How many mountain systems does South America contain, and how aro 
they designated? 82. Describe the situation of the Andes. Where do they form tlio 
eoast-line, and where are they at the greatest distance from the coast ? What is their 
general breadth ? Their greatest breadth ? 83. Flow are the Andes divided ? 84. 
Where are the Columbian Andes situated ? Average height? Highest peaks? Chim- 
borazo ? 85. Between what parallels do tjie Peruvian and Bolivian Andes extend ? For 
what are they remarkable ? How high are many of the passes in this portion of the Andes ? 
86. For what are the Chilean Andes remarkable ? Tupungato 1 What is said of the Tata- 
gonian Andes? Average height? 



MOUNTAIN SYSTEMS OF THE EASTERN CONTINENT. 



11 



87. The Mountains of Guiana extend from the river Orinoco 
in a southeasterly direction nearly to the mouth of the Amazon. 
The most western of these mountains is distinguished as the 
Parime Mountains, and the eastern as the Sierra Acaray. 
Mount Maravaca, the highest summit of the system, has an 
elevation of about 11,000 feet. 

88. The Mountains of Brazil embrace a great extent of 
country ; they lie mostly in narrow chains or ridges, the most 
elevated summits of which appear to be less than 6,000 feet high. 



LESSON VIII. 

MOUNTAIN SYSTEMS OF THE EASTERN CONTINENT. 

89. European Mountains. — The continental part of Europe 
embraces two important mountain systems, — one in the south 
and the other in the north, the former being by far the most 
extensive. The Ural and Caucasus mountains, though usually 
classed among those of Europe, form natural boundaries be- 
tween Europe and Asia, and therefore belong as much to one 
division as the other. The south mountain region includes the 
Balkan, the Alps, the Carpathian Mountains, the mountains of 
the Spanish peninsula, and the Apennines of Italy. The north 
mountain regions extend through Norway and Sweden, consti- 
tuting what are sometimes called the Scandinavian Mountains. 

90. The Balkan Mountains are situated south of the river 
Danube, and extend from the shores of the Black Sea, in a 
westerly direction, through the central part of Turkey in Eu- 
rope. A branch leaves the main chain about the meridian of 
23° east, and stretches northward to the banks of the Danube ; 
this may be called the North Balkan Mountains. South of the 
Balkan are three considerable branches, — the Little Balkan* 
the Despoto Dagh, and the chain of Mount Pindus, the latter 

stretching through the 
whole of the Grecian 
peninsula. The mount- 
ains of the Balkan sys- 
^9f tern have generally but 
a moderate elevation, 
not exceeding on the 
average from 2,000 to 
3,000 feet above the sea- 
level. In some instan- 
ces, however, they reach 
as high as 8,000 or 
9,000 feet. 

91. The Alps extend 
from about the merid- 
ian of 15° east longitude 
in a semicircular sweep of about 700 miles to the head of the 
Gulf of Genoa. Their breadth varies from 100 to 130 miles. 
They are highest in the western part, where the crest of the 
range has an average elevation of between 8,000 and 9,000 




VIEW OF THE ALPS. 



Questions.— 87. Where do the mountains of Gniana extend ? By what name is the most 
western of these mountains distinguished ? The eastern ? S8. What is said of the mount- 
ains of Brazil ? 89. How many important mountain systems does continental Europe era- 
brace, and where are they situated ? What ranges does the south mountain region include ? 
Through what countries does the north mountain region extend ? What is said of the Ural 
and Caucasus mountains ? 90. Where are the Balkan Mountains situated ? 



feet. Mont Blanc, their loftiest summit, and the highest 
mountain in Europe, has an elevation of 15,760 feet. Numer- 
ous summits exceed 10,000 feet in height, and rise above 
the limit of perpetual snow, the line of which is here between 
8,000- and 9,000 feet above the level of the ocean. The most 
frequented pass, that of Mont Cenis (between Savoy and Pied- 
mont), is 6,770 feet above the sea. It is much more steep and 
difficult on the Italian side than on that of Savoy. It consists 
of a plain, 6 miles long by 4 miles wide, encircled on all sides by 
the different eminences and ridges that form the summit of this 
part of the chain. The surrounding heights are from 2,500 to 
4,500 feet above the plain. The pass of the Great St. Bernard 





*°*T.*<, (tub- 



DOGS OP ST. BERNARD. 

is 8,170 feet high. It is celebrated for the passage of the 
French army over it in the year 1800, but more so for its hos- 
pice and sagacious dogs, employed in the rescue of travelers, 
benighted or endangered by the snow-storms. The pass of 
Mont Cervin, farther to the eastward, is 11,100 feet, and is the 
highest pass in Europe, but is not practicable for carriages. 
The great road of the Simplon, constructed by Napoleon, at- 
tains an elevation of 6,585 feet. 

92. The Apennines commence near the head of the Gulf of 
Genoa, and extend in a southeasterly direction through Italy. 
The average height of the crest of the Apennines varies from 
3,000 to 5,000 feet, but in the central portion of the chain sev- 
eral summits are between 7,000 and 10,000 feet high. A vol- 
canic region extends along the west side of the Apennines be- 
tween the 40th and 43d parallels, and at its southern extremity 
is Mount Vesuvius, 3,932 feet in height, and the only active 
volcano in continental Europe. 

Questions.— What branch on the north ? What branches on the south ? Height of the 
Balkan Mountains? 91. Describe the situation of the Alps. Their breadth ? Average 
height in the western part? What is said of Mont Blanc? Of numerous other summits? 
Whatis the height of the limit of perpetual snow? What is said of the pass of Monl Cenis? 
Great St. Bernard? Mont Cervin? The great road of the Simplon ? 92. What is said of the 
Apennines 1 Height ? Volcanic region ? Mount Vesuvius ? 



12 



THE LAND. 



93. The Carpathian Mountains are situated to the north 
of the river Danube. The higher portions have an elevation 
of between 5,000 and 6,000 feet. A number of peaks, how- 
ever, exceed 8,000 feet. The Carpathians are, in general, ex- 
ceedingly rugged, and the passes through them narrow and 
difficult. To~the west of the 18th meridian are several ranges, 
encompassing the plains of Bohemia, sometimes known as the 
Hercynian Mountains, having an average elevation of from 
2,000 to 3,000 feet. The range on the north of Bohemia is 
called the Erz Gebirg, words signifying " ore mountains." 

94. The mountains of the Spanish peninsula consist of the 
Pyrenees and the Cantabrian Mountains in the north; the 
Castilian Mountains, the Mountains of Toledo, the range 
of the Sierra Moretia, which extend in nearly parallel courses 
through the central part ; and the range of the Sierra Nevada 
in the south. The Pyrenees are about 300 miles in length, and 
have an average elevation of from 7,000 to 9,000 feet. Their 
highest summit, the Peak of Nethou, is 11,168 feet in eleva- 
tion. The Cantabrian Mountains have an average elevation of 
from 4,000 to 6,000 feet, but some of the summits exceed 10,000 
feet. The mountains of central Spain are not remarkable for 
great height, but few rising above 5,000 feet. The highest sum- 
mits of the Spanish peninsula are those of the Sierra Nevada, the 
general height of which varies from 6,000 to 9,000 feet. The 
Peak of Mulhacen, in this range, has an elevation of 11,657 feet. 

95. The mountains of Norway and Sweden, sometimes called 
the Scandinavian Mountains, extend along the Atlantic coast, 
from the Naze (the south point of Norway) to the North Cape. 
Their average height is from 3,000 to 5,000 feet, but some 
peaks, as the Snee-hoetten (snow hat), in the Dovre-field, are 
above 8,000 feet in height. The North Cape, in the island of 
Mageroe, which is a detached member of this mountain system, 
is a high mass of rock rising to 1,161 feet in elevation, and broken 
into pyramidal cliffs by the force of the waves. 

96. The Ural Mountains form the eastern boundary of Eu- 
rope. They extend from about the 51st parallel, a distance of 
more than 1,200 miles, to the vicinity of the Arctic Ocean, 
Their mean elevation is about 2,000 feet. The chain of Mount 
Caucasus extends between the Caspian and Black seas through 
a length of more than 700 miles. The breadth of the whole 
mountain region exceeds 150 miles. The highest summit, 
called El-burz (the mountain), is 18,493 feet in elevation. The 
line of perpetual snow in the Caucasus is about 11,000 feet 
above the level of the sea. 

97. Asiatic Mountains. — Asia is remarkable for embracing 
the most extensive mountain system in the world. The ranges 
extend mostly in an east and west direction, from the eastern 
extremity of the continent to the shore of the Mediterranean. 
Among the principal chains are, the Aldan or Stanovoi Mount- 
ains, the Altai, the Thian-shan, the Kuen-lun, the Himalaya, the 
Hindoo-Koosh, the mountains of Armenia, and the chain of 
Mount Taurus. 

98. The Himalaya Mountains, which border the plateau 
of Tibet on the south, contain the loftiest summits on the globe 

Questions.— 93. The Carpathian Mountains ? Height? General character of the Carpa- 
thian Mountains 1 Eanges to ihe west of the 13th meridian ? 94. What are the principal 
mountain ranges of the Spanish peninsula? The Pyrenees? The Peak of Nethou ? The 
Canta>>rian Mountains? Mountains of central Spain ? Highest summits? The Peak 
of Mulhacen? 95. The mountains of Norway and Sweden? Average height? The North 
Cape? 98. The Ural Mountains? Extent? Mean elevation? Mount Caucasus? El- 
burz ? Line of perpetual snow ? 97. For what is Asia remarkable ? 



(68). This range is about 1,500 miles in length, and from 200 
to 250 in breadth, and has a mean elevation of from 15,000 to 
1S,000 feet. All the higher parts of the mountains are cov- 
ered with perpetual snow. The mean height of the- snow-line is 
about 15,000 feet on the southern and 18,000 feet on the 
northern side of the principal range. Some of the passes over 
the Himalaya are at the remarkable elevation of 18,000 feet 
above the sea, and several exceed 15,000 feet. 

99. The Altai Mountains, which extend in an east and west 
direction, between the 50th and 55th parallels, border the great 
central table-lands of interior Asia upon the north. The Thian- 
shan and the JTuen-lun ranges are intermediate to the Altai 
and Himalaya ranges. To the east of the Great Desert of Sbamo 
or Gobi are the mountains of In-shan and Khin-ghan. Pe- 
ling and Nan-ling (or northern and southern mountains) extend 
in an east and west direction through China, separated by the 
basin of the Yang-tse-kiang River. 

100. The mountains of the Hindoo-Koosh (the summits of 
which are from 18,000 to 20,000 feet above the level of the sea) 
form a group in which several ranges unite : this region joins 
the elevated plateaus of central Asia with those iu the western 
part of the continent. The Paropamisan extend west from the 
Hindoo-Koosh along the northern borders of the plateau of 
Iran. The Elburz Mountains are a continuation of the same 
range, and extend south of the Caspian Sea, rising in Mount 
Pemavend to a height of 21,500 feet. The Soleimaun (or Su- 
leymaun) Mountains are on the east, and the Zagros Mount- 
ains on the west of the plateau of Iran. 

101. The Mountains of Armenia are very irregularly dis- 
posed, aud are situated between the head waters of the Tigris 
and the Caspian Sea. Among the highest of these mountains 
is Mount Ararat, which rises to 17,260 feet above the level of 




MOUNT ARAKAT. 

the sea, and is covered with perpetual snow. The chain of 
Mount Taurus extends through Asia Minor, and has an average 
elevation of from 4,000 to 5,000 feet ; its highest summit, Mount 
Argceus, is 12,869 feet above the sea. ' The Mountains of Leb- 
anon extend along the coast of Syria in a north and south di- 
rection. Mount Herman, their loftiest summit, is 10,000 feet 
above the sea-level, aud borders on the region of perpetual 

Questions.— General direction of the ranses? Principal chains? 93. Himalaya Mount- 
ains? Their length and breadth? Mean elevation 1 Snow-line? Passes? 99. The Altai 
Mountains ? Thian-shan and Kuen-lun ranges? What mounlains to the east oi the Great 
Desert of Shamo? The Pe-ling and Nan-ling ? 100. The Hindoo-Koo-h? What regions 
dotheyunite? The Paropamisan ? The Elburz Mountains? The Soleimaun Mountains? 
TheZagros? 101. The mounlainsof Armenia? Mount Ararat? MountTaurua? Argceus? 
The mountains of Lebanon ? Mount Hermon ? The Sinai Mountains? 



UPLAND PLAINS, OR TABLE-LANDS. 



IS 



snow. The highest peak of the Sinai Mountains, which stand 
at the head of the Red Sea, is 0,300 feet above the sea. 

102. Mountain ranges also extend through Arabia, Hindoo- 
stan, the Indo-Chinese peninsula, and the peninsulas of Corea 
and Kamtchatka. 

103. Afbican Mountains. — A range of mountains extends 
along the northern shores of Africa called Mount Atlas. It has 
a mean elevation of from 7,000 to 9,000 feet ; but Mount Milt- 
sin, to the southeastward of the city of Morocco, is found to he 
11,400 feet in altitude. To the eastward of the 4th meridian 
of west longitude is a series of ranges nowhere more than from 
3,000 to 4,000 feet high. 

104. The Mountains of Abyssinia constitute another mount- 
ain system of Africa. They rest on an extensive plateau of from 
6,000 to 8,000 feet in elevation. The highest summits are up- 
ward of 15,000 feet above the sea, and are covered with per- 
petual snow. The valley of the Nile, through nearly the whole 
length of its course, is bordered by high rocks or hills of an 
elevation which rarely exceeds from five to six hundred feet. 
Near the Red Sea is a succession of mountain groups, some 
of which reach from 6,000 to 9,000 feet in altitude. 

105. A third mountainous system of Africa extends along 
the western coast, between the parallels of 14° of north and 
18° of south latitude. Those which he in an east and west 
direction, north of the Gulf of Guinea, are known by the name 
of the Kong Mountains ; their general height is from 3,000 to 



in the marshy lowlands, combined with other causes, has pre- 
vented anything like a full survey of the coast regions of Africa, 
while the vast interior is almost entirely unknown. It is prob- 
able that extensive elevations may yet be discovered in the 
central part. 

106. A fourth series of mountain chains extends along the 
eastern coast of Africa, though lying generally at a consid- 
erable distance inland. But very little is known respecting this 
range. It is supposed to form the border of a great interior 
table-land. Mount Kilimand/jaro, in latitude 4° south, was 
discovered by a missionary in 1849 ; its summit is covered with 
perpetual snow, whence its elevation is assumed to be about 
20,000 feet. Mount Kenia, a volcano, situated a little south 
of the equator, is ajjparently somewhat higher than Kili- 
mandjaro. 

107. In South Africa is a mountain chain which runs in a 
general direction of east and west, called the JVieuveldt Mount- 
ains. The highest portions are above 10,000 feet in height. 
The Table Mountain, in the neighborhood of the Cape of Good 
Hojie, is a flat-toj>ped summit, 3,582 feet above the level of 
the sea. 

Note. — Before proceeding to the following lesson, the student 
should turn to pages 87-95, and attend to the questions relating 
to plateaus and plains, on the several maps of the grand 
divisions. These questions may be assigned for tico lessons. 







BARKEN PLAIN, EAST OF ROCKY MOUNTAINS. 



4,000 feet. The Peak of Cameroons, near the coast of the 
Bight of Biafra, is a detached mountain mass, 13,760 feet in 
height. In the adjoining island of Fernando Po, Clarence Peak 
rises to 10,655 feet. The extreme unhealthiness of the climate 



Questions. — 102. Other mountain ranges ? 103. What mountains in the north of Africa? 
Mean elevation? Mount Miltsin? 104. On what do the mountains of Abyssinia rest? 
Height of the highest summits ? The valley of the Nile ? Mountains near the P.ed Sea ? 
105. Wbat is a third mountain system ? The Kong Mountains ? The Peak of Cameroons ? 
Clarence Peat ? 106. A fourth series of mountain chains ? What is supposed respecting 
it? Mount Eilimandjaro? Mount Kenia? 



LESSON IX. - 

UPLAND PLAINS, OR TABLE-LANDS. 

108. Upland plains, sometimes called table- 
lands, or plateaus, are extensive tracts whose 
general level is considerably elevated above that 
of the sea. They are commonly skirted by mount- 
ain ranges, which in some cases descend ab- 
ruptly into the surrounding plains. Some of 

I these elevated plains support upon their surface 
large mountain ranges, which, although of incon- 
siderable height above the plateau, are yet of 
great elevation above the level of the sea. Table- 
lands vary in height from 2,000 to 15,000 feet. 

109. The most extensive table-lands of North 
America are those situated in Mexico. They 
embrace the plateau of Anahuac, and extend 
from about the 42d parallel southward to the 
peninsula of Tehuantepec. . This vast highland 

consists of a series of plains of different elevations : the highest 
part of the plain of Toluca, upon which the city of Mexico stands, 
is 9,000 feet above the sea-level : farther to the southeast are the 
plateaus of Guatemala and Honduras, which exceed 6,000 feet. 



Questions.— 107. What mountain chain in South Africa ? Greatest elevation ? Tho 
Table Mountain? 10S. What are upland plains, table-lands, or plateaus? How com- 
monly skirted? Mountain ranges supported by ihem ? Height of table-lands? 109. Table- 
lands of North America ? What large plateaus do they embrace, and where do they 
extend? Of what does this vast highland consist? Elevation of the plain of Toluca? 
Of the plateaus of Guatemala and Honduras? 



14 



THE LAND. 



110. The plateau of Chihuahua (to the northward of the 24th 
parallel) varies from 4,000 to 6,000 feet in height, the southern 
portion heing the more elevated. It is generally level, and a 
great part of it desert. This tract contains many dry salt-lakes, 
and most of the rivers which cross it terminate on the table- 
land without finding any outlet to the coast. The plain of Ana- 
huac is more generally fertile, though arid in many parts. 

111. Along the base of the Rocky Mountains a succession 
of barren plains extends eastward, for a distance of 400 miles, 
toward the valley of the Mississippi. Through these regions 
the Red, Arkansas, and other rivers flow in channels consid- 
erably below the general surface. The country between the 
Rocky Mountains and the Pacific consists, for the most part, of 
high plateaus and mountain-terraces, iucluding the Great Basin 
or plateau of TJtah, with an elevation of from 4,000 to 5,000 feet. 

112. The northern regions of North America are character- 
ized by highlands, though of no very considerable elevations 
(79). The severity of the climate has prevented anything like 
a full exploration, and they will long remain, as they are at 
present, inhabited only by a hardy race of savages. 

113. South America is remarkable for containing some of the 
most elevated plains in the world. That which surrounds Lake 
Titicaca is 12,900 feet above the level of the sea, and is sur- 
rounded by the loftiest summits of the Andes. The plain 
of Antisana, under the equator, surrounds the cone of a mount- 
ain by the same name, which is covered with eternal snow, 
and seems like an islet in its midst. This plain is 13,451 
feet high, and contains the hamlet of Antisana, which lies at the 
foot of the cone, being one of the highest spots inhabited by man. 

114. The most extensive table-land of Europe is that of 
Spain. " This peninsula consists chiefly of an elevated tract 
which reaches on its north side to a height of 3,000 feet, 
and on its south to about 2,000 feet. Madrid, the capital, 
has an elevation of 2,170 feet. The plateau of Bavaria, in 
central Europe, reaches a height of 2,000 feet ; and the south- 
west portion of the Scandinavian peninsula constitutes a pla- 
teau of moderate elevation. There are several small plateaus, 
such as the plateau of the Valdai, the plateau of Finland, etc. 

115. Asia contains the most widely extended system of table- 
lands on the globe. Between the Himalaya Mountains on the 
south, and the Altai Mountains on the north, extends the vast 
central plateau, having an elevation of from 3,000 to 12,000 
feet above the sea-level. In the south, the plain of Tibet attains 
the remarkable height of 12,000 feet. Farther north is the 
great desert of Shamo or Gobi, which has an elevation of from 
4,000 to 5,000 feet. Nearly the whole of southwestern Asia 
is elevated into table-lands, among which are the plateau of Iran, 
the plateau of Asia Minor, and the plateau of Arabia. These 
plateaus have an elevation of from 2,000 to 4,000 feet. The 
plateau of the Deccan forms the southern portion of Hindoostan, 
and has an elevation of about 2,000 feet. 

116. The Sahara (or Great Desert) of Africa forms a pla- 
teau of moderate elevation, probably not more in general than 

Questions. — 110. Describe the plateau of Chihuahua. What is said of its lakes and 
rivers? The plain of Anabuac? 111. Plains east of the Eocky Mountains? Between 
the Rocky Mountains and the Pacific ? 112. Highlands in the northern part of North 
America ? 118. For what is South America remarkable ? What is said of the plain which 
surrounds Lake Tilicaca? The plain of Antisana? Hamlet of Antisana? 114. The most 
extensive table-land of Europe ? Its elevation on the north and south ? Elevation of 
Madrid ? The plateau of Bavaria ? Other plateaus ? 115. Plateaus of Asia ? 



from 1,000 to 1,500 feet above the sea, though particidar poiv 
tions of it reach the height of 2,000 feet. It is generally 




SCENE IN THE DESEKT OF AKABIA. 



believed that a vast table-land stretches from the borders of 
Soudan to Cape Colony ; and so far as explorations have 
been made within these limits, this belief is fully confirmed. 



LESSON X. 



LOWLAND PLAINS. 
11Y. Lowland plains are distinguished from plateaus by 
being only slightly elevated above the sea-level. In some cases 
they are considerably below it, as, for examples, the regions 
around the Caspian Sea and the Sea of Aral. They embrace 
the most fertile regions of the globe, and being commonly 
traversed by navigable rivers, affording facilities for inland 
commerce and communication, they constitute the principal 
abodes of man, and the seats of industry and wealth. 

118. Nokth American Plains. — The central portion of 
North America, extending from the Gulf of Mexico to the 
Arctic Ocean, forms one immense plain, estimated to possess 
over two and a quarter millions of square miles, or nearly one 
third of the area of the entire continent. A rising ground di- 
vides it into a northern and southern slope — the former being 
drained by the waters which flow into Hudson Bay and the 
Arctic Ocean, and the latter by streams tributary to the Gulf 
of Mexico. 

119. This plain is bounded on the east by the Apalachian 
system, and on the west by the highlands which form the east, 
ern base of the Rocky Mountains. Its western limit, south of 
the 55th parallel north, is nearly along the 101st meridian ; 
above that parallel it pursues a northwest direction to the 
mouth of the Mackenzie River, in latitude 135° west. 

120. The only considerable elevations throughout this im- 
mense extent are the Ozark Hills in the south, and a plateau 
of moderate height to the north and west of Lake Superior. 

Qwstions.— Describe the situation of the vast central plateau. lis elevation ? The plain 
ofTibet? The great desertof Shamo? Plateau of southwestern Asia? Plateauof the Dec- 
can ? 110. Sahara? Table-land of South Africa? 117. How are lowland plains distin- 
guished from plateaus? In what ease are they below the sea-level? What do (hey 
embrace? 118. What is the situation and extent of the great central plain ot Norlh 
America? now divided ? 119. Its boundary on the east and west ? Its western limit? 
120. Elevations? The eastern parts 1 The middle parts 1 



LOWLAND PLAINS. 



15 



The eastern part of the plain, toward the base of the Alleghany 
Mountains and the shores of Hudson Bay, are generally 
■wooded, and diversified by hills of trifling elevation. The 
middle parts, embracing the valleys of the Mississippi and Mis- 
souri, and the intervening tracts as far as the upper portions of 
the Mackenzie, are level and grassy regions, caRed prairies. 
121. Prairies may be arranged into three kinds : 

(1.) The Bushy Prairies.- — These usually contain springs, and are covered 
•with grass, shrubs, grapevines, and varieties of flowers. 




SCENE ON AIT AKEKTCAH PRAIRIE. 

(2.) The Dry or Rolling Prairies, so called from the absence of swamps or 
pools, and on account of their wavy surface. Ths vegetation consists prin- 
cipally of grass, weeds, and flowers, which grow with great luxuriance. 
Over these prairies the American buffaloes roam, in herds of from 40,000 to 
50,000. 

(3.) The Moist or Wet Prairies, the smallest division, abound in pools with- 
out issue, left by the floods of the rainy seasons. They are covered with a 
rich vegetation of tall rank grass. 

122. Along the Atlantic coast, between the base of the Apa- 
lachian Mountains and the sea, stretches a plain, or a compara- 
tively level region, narrow in its northern portion, but increasing 
to a width of about 250 miles toward its southern limits, as the 
mountains recede from the coast. Extensive swamps line the 
coast in several places, and the soil near the sea-shore is fre- 
quently sterile ; but farther inland the country improves, and 
contains many fertile tracts. The peninsula of Florida, which 
belongs to this region, is low and flat, and a large portion of it 
covered with swamps. 

123. South American Plains. — A great central plain 
stretches through the whole length of South America. It is 
divided into three principal portions — the plain of the Orinoco, 
the plain of the Amazon, and the plain of the Rio de la Plata, — 
deriving their names from the three principal rivers by which 
they are respectively drained. These divisions are distin- 
guished by the names of llanos, selvas, and pampas. 

124. The Llanos, or Level Fields, are those vast plains in 

Questions. — 121. Into how many kinds may prairies be ranged ? Describe the Bnshy 
Prairies,— the Dry, or Rolling Prairies,— the Moist, or Wet Prairies. 122. Describe the 
plain of the Atlantic coast. The peninsula of Florida. 123. Into how many portions is the 
great central plain of South America divided ? By what names are they distinguished? 



Venezue! and New Granada which extend to the north and 
west from the Orinoco. They have a very level surface, and so 
gently do they slope toward the sea, that a slight rise in the 
Orinoco reverses the current of the tributary streams. At the 
close of the rainy season the llanos are covered with luxuriant 
grass, and fprm rich pasture grounds ; but during the dry 
months which succeed, the vegetation is entirely destroyed, and 
the parched ground oj^ens in deep and wide crevices, giving 
the whole country the aspect of desolation and sterility. 

125. The Selvas, or Forest Plains, extend over 
the lower portion of the basin of the Amazon, 
and within the limits to which the annual inunda- 
tions of that river and its tributaries extend. A 
large part of this country is covered with dense 
forests. 

126. Mrs. Sornerville thus describes the selvas 
of South America : 

"The soil, enriched for ages by the spoils of the forest, 
consists of the richest mold. The heat is suffocating in the 
deep and dark recesses of these primeval woods, where not a 
breath of air penetrates, and where, after being drenched by 
the periodical rains, the damp is so excessive that a blue mist 
rises in the early morning among the huge stems of the trees, 
and envelops the entangled creepers stretching from bough 
to bough. A death-like stillness prevails from sunrise to sun- 
set ; then the thousands of animals that inhabit these forests 
join in one loud, discordant roar, not continuous, but in 
bursts. The beasts seem to be periodically and unani- 
gN — ^^ mously roused by some unknown impulse, till the forest 

~— _ rings in universal uproar. Profound silence prevails at mid- 

night, which is broken at the dawn of morning by another 
general roar of the wild chorus. Nightingales, too, have 
their fits of silence and song ; after a pause they 

' — all burst forth in choral minstrelsy, 

As if some sudden gale had swept at once 
A hundred airy harps. 1 — Coleridge." 

127. The Pampas, or Flats, are immense level plains, va- 
riously covered with long, coarse grass, mixed with wild oats, 
clover, and other herbage. The country between the 32d and 




LLANO OF SOUTH AMERICA. 

39th parallels consists of swampy tracts, overgrown with canes 
and tall reeds, and in other districts covered with gigantic 
thistles, which grow to the height of eight feet, and so thick as 

Questions. — 124. Where are the Llanos situated ? What is said of their level surface? 
How covered during the rainy season ? Their aspect during the dry season ? 125. Situation 
ofthe Selvas? How covered ? 126. Mrs. Somerville's description of the selvas of S. Amer- 
ica ? 127. What are the Pampas ? Describe the country between, the 32d and 39th parallels. 



16 



THE LAND. 



literally to render the country impassable. During nine months 
of the year the thistles are here the predominant (and almost 
the only) feature of the vegetable kingdom, hut with the heats 
of the summer they become burned up, and their tall, leafless 
stems are leveled to the ground by the powerful blast of the 
pampero, or southwest wind, from the snowy ranges of the 
Ancles, after which the earth is covered for a brief time with 
herbage. This is destined, with the return of spring, again to 
give way to the stronger vegetation, which it had succeeded, 
and for a time supplanted. 

128. The plain which extends from the banks of the Negro 
(latitude 39° south) to the southern extremity of the con- 
tinent is for the most part barren ; in some places it is cov- 
ered with sand, mixed with stones and gravel. It contains 
no trees, but a scanty vegetation of shrubs and herbage is 
found in a few hollows and ravines:* 



LESSON XT. 

GLACIERS. 

129. A glacier! is a field or immense mass of ice formed in 
deep but elevated valleys, or on the sides of mountains. Gla- 
ciers occur very extensively among the A^s, and the mountains 
of Norway, and among the Andes of Patagonia and Terra del 
Fuego. They are also common among the highlands and upon 
the precipitous coasts throughout the polar regions. They 
occur, however, in the greatest numbers and to the greatest 
extent in the mountains of Switzerland. Along the central 

part of the Alps, from 

Mont Blanc to the fron- 
tiers of Tyrol, there are 
reckoned more than 400 
glaciers, some of them only 
3 miles in length, while 
others are from 18 to 21 
miles long, from 1 to 1\ 
miles wide, and from 100 
to 600 feet thick. Alto- 
gether the glaciers of Swit- 
zerland are estimated to 
cover a surface of upward 
of 1,000 square miles, and 
form a sea of ice from the inexhaustible reservoirs of which 
some of the principal European rivers are supplied. 

130. Glaciers are not composed of solid ice, but consist of a 
mixture of ice, snow, and water. They owe their origin to the 
accumulation of the snow which falls from the sides of the 
mountains, and becomes only partially melted during the short 
summer of these elevated regions. 

131. It is a remarkable fact respecting glaciers that they 
have an onward flow like rivers. The movement is very slow, 

Questions.— 128. Describe the plain wbieh extends to the south of the Negro. 129. What 
is a glacier? Where do glaciers occur extensively? Where else are they common ? 
dumber of the glaciers along the central part of the Alps ? Their extent ? 




VIEW OF A GLACIEK. 



* Hughes' Manual of Geography. 

+ Glacier ie from the Latin glades, ice. The French word glaciere, from glace, signi- 
fies jm ice-house. 



not amounting usually to more than a foot in twenty-four 
hours. Like that of rivers, it is most rapid in the center, and 
slower at the sides and bottom on account of friction. M. 
Agassiz obtained the following results, in 1841 and 1842, upon 
this point : 

Annual Motion. 
Fiuster Aar. — Stake nearest the center of the glacier 269 feet. 

" Stake nearest the side of the glacier 180 " 

Lauter Aar. — Stake nearest the center 245 " 

1 ' Stake nearest the side 1 25 " 

132. The rate of motion depends upon the seasons ; thawing 
weather, and a wet state of the ice, conducing to its advance- 
ment, while cold, whether sudden or prolonged, checks its 




ITER DE GLACE, SWITZERLAND. 

progress. The ice near the shore of the 3Ter de Glace (Sea 
of Ice), near Chamouni, was found to move as follows: 

From June 29 to Sept. 28 132 feet. 

" Sept. 28 to Dec. 12 70 " 

" Dec. 12 to Feh. 17 76 " 

" Feh. 17 to April 4 66 " 

" April 4 to June 8 88 " 

133. Glaciers, originating in tha regions of eternal frost, de- 
scend far below the line of perpetual snow. The lowest limit 
to which perpetual snow extends downward in the Swiss Alps 
is about 8,500 feet above the level of the sea. The lower gla- 
cier of the Aar descends more than 1,500 feet below the snow- 
line, while others descend 4,000 or 5,000 below the region 
of perpetual snow and ice, as, for examples, the glaciers of the 
Upper and Lower Grindelwald. 

134. The appearance of glaciers is thus described by Lyell : 

' ' When they descend steep slopes and precipices, or are forced through 
narrow gorges, the ice is broken up and assumes the most fantastic and pic- 
turesque forms, with lofty peaks and pinnacles projecting above the general 
level. These snow-white masses are often relieved by a dark background 
of pines, as in the valley of Chamouni ; and are not only surrounded with 
abundance of the wild rhododendron in full flower, but encroach still 
lower into the region of cultivation, and trespass on fields where the tobacco- 
plant is flourishing by the side of the peasant's hut." 

Questions. — Nunjbcr of square miles covered by the glaciers of Switzerland? 130 
Of what do glaciers consist? Their origin ? 131. Remarkable fact respecting glaciers? 
Rate of movement? In what part most rapid ? Results obtained by Agassiz? 132. Upon 
what does the rate of motion depend ? State tbe movement of the Mer de Glace at differ- 
ent seasons. 133. Do glaciers descend below the limit of perpetual snow ? What is the 
lowest limit of perpetual snow on the Alps ? To what distance below this line are glaciers 
known to descend ? 131. Appearance of glaciers as described by Lyell ? 



SNOW MOUNTAINS AND AVALANCHES. 



135. Snow mountains and glaciers, though devoid of vege- 
tation in the upper regions, and presenting a picture of desola- 
tion on a scale of magnificence which makes it awful, are yet a 
striking instance of the truth that nothing was made in vain. 

"Herds of chamois are at home amid the frozen heights of the Alps ; the 
Tibetian cow can only bear the climate of the valleys in winter ; nor can 
man pronounce such districts barren, though cheerless in appearance, and 
never intended for his residence. They minister to his comfort, happiness, 
and even luxury, as the inexhaustible sourcea of those stFeams which in 
summer, when other waters are evaporated and dried up, roll on through 
the plains, fountains of fertility and plenty. The Rhone, Rhine, Po, Reuss, 
Ticino, Aar, Adige, Inn, and Drave, respectively flowing to the German 
Ocean, Mediterranean, Adriatic, and Black seas, are fed from the snows 
and glaciers of the Alps." — Rev. Thomas Milxee. 



LESSON XII. 

SNOW MOUNTAINS AND AVALANCHES. 

136. The polar regions are covered with fields of perpetual 
ice and snow. In the tenrperate and torrid zones everlasting 
frosts prevail only on the high lands. The elevation at which 
perpetual snow begins in these zones varies with the latitude. 
It is 16,000 feet from the level of the sea at the equator ; 9,000 
feet near latitude 45° ; 5,000 feet at latitude 60° ; 1,000 feet at 
latitude 70° ; and about latitude SO 3 the line of perpetual snow 
comes down to the sea-level. 

137. The principal localities of permanent snow in the torrid 




mount egmont. 

and temperate zones are Iceland, Norway, the Alps, and Pyre- 
nees, in Europe ; the Caucasus, Himalaya, Kuen-lun, and Altai 
mountains, in Asia ; the range of the Greater Atlas, in Africa ; 

Questions.— 135. What remark is made of snow mountains and glaciers ? How illus- 
trated ? 136. Polar regions how covered ? Where only do everlasting frosts prevail in 
the temperate and torrid zones ? Elevation at which perpetual snow hegins at the equa- 
tor ? At the 45° ? 60° ? 70° ? Snow-line at the 80° ? 137. Principal localities of per- 
manent snow in the torrid and temperate zones ? 138. Accumulation of snow masses ? 
Where precipitated? Destructive effects? 



and the Andes, and higher parts of the Rocky Mountains, in 
America. The mountains of South Australia, and Mount 
Egmont, in New Zealand, are snow mountains. The Himalaya 
derives its name, " the dwelling of snow," from the vast surface 
occupied by it. 

13S. The summits of these lofty mountains accumulate enor- 
mous masses of snow, which are often precipitated into the 
surrounding valleys, producing terrible disasters. These de- 
scending bodies increase in volume by the dislodgment of other 
masses, and fall with tremendous velocity and violence, uprooting 
trees, overwhelming houses and villages, and stopping the flow 
of streams and rivers. 

139. Such falls are very common in Switzerland, where they 
are called avalanches,* or lavanges. In Norway they are 
called the snee-fond. Four kinds are noticed — drift, sliding, 
creeping, and ice avalanches. 

140. (1.) A drift avalanche is the fall of the drifts and other 
accumidations of snow from the upper regions. During calm 
weather snow collects in enormous volumes on the declivities, 
where it remains until the wind forces it from its resting-place, 
and it rushes down into the lower regions. In its progress it 
forces off other masses, which augment its size, and becoming 
thus enlarged, it descends with constantly accelerated energy, 
occasioning as much damage by the whirlwind rush of the air 
as by the direct attack of the snow. 

141. (2.) A sliding avalanche is a descent of snow masses 
which have become loosened by the heat of the earth. Ava- 
lanches of this class occur in spring, and commonly originate 
in the middle region of mountains. (3.) Creeping avalanches 
originate in a similar manner, but on less steep declivities. 
(4.) Ice avalanches are parts of a glacier, detached by the 
summer heat, or broken off by their own weight, on the ex- 
tremity projecting over the edge of a precipice. 

142. The following interesting description of avalanches is 
by the Rev. Thomas Milner : 

" On descending the Sheideck into the valley of Grindelwald, canton 
of Berne, the extraordinary effects of an ice avalanche that fell some years 
ago are observable. The ground is entirely cleared ; the trees have been 
swept away like reeds ; an area of at least a mile and a half square is strewn 
with stones and stumps ; a fine forest growing on each side of the area, 
which was untouched by the falling mass. 

143. ' ' A similar avalanche descended near the village of Randa, in one 
of the valleys of the Valais canton, in 1819. It covered with ice, rubbish, 
and fragments of rock an area of 2,400 feet in length, by 1,000 feet wide, to 
the depth of 150 feet. It fell on an uninhabited spot, but the adjoining 
village was destroyed by the tremendous rush of the compressed air conse- 
quent upon the descent of such an enormous mass, about 9,000 feet. Beams 
of houses were carried nearly a mile into the forest, and the massive stone 
steeple of the church was snapped asunder. 

144. "In the year 1749, a creeping avalanche of snow descended in the 
valley of Tawich, in the canton of the Grisons, and buried the whole village 
of Bueras, pushing it at the same time from, its site. The catastrophe 
occurred in the night, and so stealthily, that it was vinperceived by the 
inhabitants, who, on awaking in the morning, were surprised at the pro- 
longed darkness. Sixty out of a hundred persons were dug out alive, 
obtaining a sufficient supply of air through the interstices of the snow to 
sustain life. 



Questions.— 139. Where are such falls very common ? What are they called in Switzer- 
land ? In Norway ? What four kinds are noticed ? 140. Describe the drift avalanches. 
141. The sliding avalanches,— the creeping avalanches,— the ice avalanches. 



* Avalanche, from the French awaZer, to descend. 



VOLCANOES. 



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145. "In ibdo tiie eeciuueu uospice of the Grimsel was the scene of a 
remarkable preservation. The hospice, remote from any human habitation, 
well known to pilgrims in the Oberland, is only tenanted by a single servant 
with provisions and dogs, from November to March. In the latter month a 
great storm occurred, and the snow fell incessantly for four days. While 
occupied with his art of wood-carving, the solitary was alarmed by a mys- 
terious sound in the evening, like the cry of a human being in distress ; but 
no benighted wayfarer appeared on sallying forth with his dog. The sound 
recurred again. It was one of those signals which frequently precede a 
grand catastrophe in the Alps — the noise of a mass disturbed and quivering. 
Suddenly the impression seized him to retreat into the hospice. He went 
accordingly into an inner room and began to pray, when the avalanche came 
thundering down, crushing every apartment but the one which was then 
sanctified by prayer. Its inmate with his dog succeeded in working his way 
through the snow, and reached Meyringen in safety, firmly regarding his 
preservation as an answer to his prayer ; and to every pious mind it will 
verify the sacred declaration, ' He that dwelleth in the secret place of the 
Most High shall abide under the shadow of the Almighty.' " 



LESSON XIII. 

VOLCANOES. 

146. The term volcano (derived from Vulcanus, the name the 
ancient Romans gave to their imaginary god of fire) is applied 
to those mountains which send forth, from their summits or 
sides, flame, smoke, ashes, and streams of melted matter called 
lava : it is also applied to mountains having eruptions of mud 
only, and which are hence called Mud Volcanoes. 

147. Volcanoes are generally of a conical shape, with a hollow 
at their summit; called the crater, or cup, the sides of which are 
sometimes entire, like the walls of a circus, but more commonly 




VOLCANO OF ORIZABA. 



rent. The bottom or floor of craters usually presents a series 
of ashy cones, with cracks and fissures, through which jets 
of smoke, steam, and flame issue at the most tranquil intervals. 
148. Volcanoes are either continuously active, or intermit- 
tent, or extinct. Of the former class is Stromboli, in the 
Mediterranean — a comparatively lowly mound, 2,175 feet high. 
It has been uninterruptedly active from the dawn of authentic 
history, a permanent fiery beacon to the sailors of the adjoining 
seas, but very rarely violent. Etna, Vesuvius, and Cotopaxi 

Questions.— 146. From what is the term volcano derived? To what is it applied? 
14T. General shape of volcanoes? What is the opening at the summit called? Its ap- 
pearance ? The general appearance of the hottom or floor of craters ? 148. The threo 
states of volcanoes ? Stromboli? Examples of intermittent volcanoes ? What are extinct 
volcanoes ? Instance. 



20 



THE LAND. 



have varying intervals of rest, in some instances amounting to 
centuries. Extinct volcanoes are those whose activity has for 
ages been suspended. A volcano of this class may be found on 
the isle of Palma, one of the Canaries. 

149. An explosion commonly begins by a dense volume of 
smoke issuing from the crater, mixed with aqueous vapor and 
gases ; then masses of rock and melted matter are thrown out 
with great violence, after which lava begins to flow, and the 
whole terminates with a shower of ashes from the crater. The 
ashes are often the most destructive, as will be seen by the 
accounts of volcanoes in a succeeding lesson. 

150. There are supposed to be about three hundred volcanoes 
on the earih, about two thirds of which are situated in islands, 
the remainder being confined to the continents. Their dis- 
tribution is stated in the following table : 





On Continents. 


In Islands. 


Total. 




4 


20 


24 




17 


29 


46 




2 


9 

28 


11 




86 


114 




— 


108 


108 


Total 


109 


194 


303 



Note. — Before proceeding with the following lesson, the 
student should attend to the map questions on page 19. 



LESSON XIV. 

VOLCANIC REGIONS.* 

151. Volcanic Regions of the Andes. — The Andes of 
South America embrace three extensive volcanic regions. The 
first is known as the Chilean range, the second as the Peruvian, 
and the third as the volcanic region of Quito. These regions 
are separated by extensive tracts, in which no volcanic action 
has been known to occur since the discovery of America. 

152. The volcanic range of Chile embraces the most southern 
line of active vents. It extends from latitude 43° 28' south, or 
from a point on a range with the island of Chiloe to Coquimbo, 
in latitude 30° south — a distance of nearly fourteen degrees 
of latitude. This region is noted for containing the Peak of 
Aconcagua (22,301 feet), till recently the highest known volcano 
in the world. To the north is a space of more than eight 
degrees of latitude, in which no recent volcanic eruptions have 
been observed. 

153. The Peru-Bolivian line of volcanoes, the next in order, 
extends a distance of about six degrees, from latitude 21° south 
to latitude 15° south. The volcano of Sahama, of late said to 
be the highest known volcano — having an elevation of 22,250 
feet, is situated in this district. Between the Peruvian vol- 
canoes and those of Quito another space intervenes, of no less 



-149. How does an explosion commonly begin ? What substances follow ? 
What finally succeeds? Which of the ejected substances is often t!ie most destructive? 

150. Number of volcanoes? How many of these are situated in islands ? On continents? 
What number belongs to Europe? To Asia? To Africa? To America ? ToOceauiea? 

151. Number of volcanic regions in the Andes ? By what names known ? 



* The description of the volcanic regions contained in this lesson is derived chiefly 
from " Lyell's Principles of Geology." 



than fourteen degrees of latitude, said to be free from volcanic 
action so far as yet known. 

154. The volcanic region of Quito begins about two degrees 
south of the equator, and continues about five degrees north 
of the line. Its most elevated volcanoes are Antisana and 
Cyambe, — the former having an altitude of 19,370 feet, and the 
latter 19,534 feet. To the north of this region there occurs 
another undisturbed interval of more than six degrees, after 
which we arrive at the volcanoes of Guatemala, in Central 
America, north of the Isthmus of Panama. 

155. The volcanoes of South America tower in many instances 
to vast elevations above the level of the sea, several examples 
of which have been previously mentioned. Those of Peru rise 
from a lofty platform to heights varying from 17,000 to 20,000 
feet. Of those which have recently been in a state of activity, 
the most lofty is Cotopaxi : its eruptions have been more 
frequent and destructive than those of any other mountain. It 
is a perfect cone, usually covered with an enormous bed of 
snow, which has, however, been sometimes melted suddenly by 
an eruption ; as in January, 1803, for example, when the snows 
were dissolved in one night. 

156. Frequent deluges are caused in the Andes by the 
sudden melting of great masses of snow, and by the rending 
open, during earthquakes, of subterranean cavities filled with 
water. In these inundations fine volcanic sand, loose stones, 
and other materials, which the water meets with in its descent, 
are swept away, and a vast quantity of mud, called " moya," is 
thus formed and carried down into the lower resdons. In 




1797, valleys a thousand feet wide, siir- 
rounding Tunguragua, in Quito, were filled 
with mud from this source to a depth of 

six hundred feet. 

157. Volcanoes op North America. — Proceeding north 

from the Isthmus of Panama, we find extensive volcanoes 



Questions. — How are these regions separated ? 152. Volcanic range of Chile ? Between 
what parallels does it extend ? For what remarkable ? 153. Situation and extent of the Peru- 
Bolivian line of volcanoes? Volcano of Sahama? What non-volcanic region to the north? 
154. Situation and extent of the volcanic region of Quito? Most elevated summits? What 
region extends farther north ? 155. What is said of the vast elevations of the South Amcr- 
riean volcanoes ? Of those of Peru ? What is said of Cotopaxi ? 156. Frequent deluges, 
how caused? Moya? Illustration? 157. Volcanoes north of the Isthmus of Panama? 
Coseguina ? Amount of ashes thrown out? 



VESUVIUS, ETNA, ETC. 



21 



scattered through Central America and Mexico. Coseguina, 
in the former country, was in eruption in 1835, and some of its 
ashes fell at Truxillo, on the shores of the Gulf of Mexico. 
The amount of ashes thrown out by this eruption was so 
great, that twenty-four miles to the southward they covered 
the ground to the depth of three yards and a half, destroying 
the woods and dwellings. Thousands of cattle perished, and 
the streams were strewn with dead fish. 

158. Of the volcanoes of Mexico are Tuxtla, Orizaba, Po- 
pocatepetl, Jorullo, and Colima, situated on a line extending 
from west to east, near the parallel of 19° north latitude. 
If this line be prolonged in a westerly direction, it cuts the 
volcanic group of islands called the Isles of Revillagigedo. 
There are said to be three, or, according to some, five volcanoes 
in the peninsula of California ; one in the northern part of the 
State of California (Mount Shasta) ; one near the mouth of the 
Columbia River (Mount St. Helens) ; also several in tha south- 
ern part of Russian America. 

159. Of the West Indian Islands, the range known as the 
Lesser Antilles is extensively volcanic. It comprises two par- 
allel series : the one to the west, which arc all volcanic, and 
which rise to the height of several thousand feat ; the other to 
the east, for the most part composed of calcareous rocks, and 
very low. In the former, or volcanic series, are Grenada, St. 
Vincent,' St. Lucia, Martinique, Dominica, Guadaloupe, Mont- 
serrat, Nevis, and St. Eustace. In the calcareous chain arc 
Tobago, Barbadoes, St. Bartholomew, and St. Martin. The 
most considerable eruptions of modern times have been those 
of St. Vincent. 

160. The volcanic regions of the continental parts of America 
are confined to the western coast, where a line of volcanoes 
may be traced — as we have seen, — with occasional interrup- 
tions, from one extremity of the continent to the other. There 
seems to be no indication of volcanoes in Buenos Ayres, Brazil, 
and the eastern part of the United States ; though violent 
earthquakes have occurred in the latter country ; as that 
which convulsed the valley of the Mississippi, at New Madrid, 
in 1812. 

161. Volcanic Region from the Aleutian Isles to the 
Moluccas and Isles op Sunda. — An extensive line of volca- 
noes ranges through the Pacific, parallel with, and at no great 
distance from, the eastern Asiatic coast. It commences in the 
north with the Aleutian Isles, and extends, first in a westerly 
direction for nearly 200 geographical miles, and then south- 
ward, with few interruptions, throughout a space of between 
sixty and seventy degrees of latitude to the Moluccas. At 
this point it sends off a branch to the southeast, while the 
principal train continues westerly through Sumbawa and Java 
to Sumatra, and thence in a northwesterly direction to the. 
Bay of Bengal. 

162. It is supposed the northern extremity of this extensive 
volcanic region is not far from Cook's Inlet, northeast of the 

Questions.— 15S. Volcanoes in Mexico? How situated? Volcanoes in the peninsula 
of California ? Wliat volcano reported to have been found farther north? 159. What 
volcanic range in the West Indian Islands? Describe the more westerly of the twofiar- 
allel series. The other. What islands belong to the former series 1 To the other ? 
163. To what regions arc the volcanoes of the continental part of America confined ? 
Where may they be traced? In which countries arc there no traces of volcanoes? 161. 
Volcanic range through the Pacific ? Where does it commence ? Give its general cours". 
Its course from the Moluccas ? 162. Situation of the northern extremity of this volcanic 
region ? What of the volcanoes of Alaska ? 



peninsula of Alaska, where one volcano, in about the sixtieth 
degree of latitude, is said to be over 12,000 feet high. Alaska 
contains cones of vast height, which have been seen in eruption, 
and which are covered for two thirds of their height downward 
with perpetual snow. 

163. From Alaska the line is continued through the Aleutian 
or Fox Islands to Kamtchatka. On this peninsula are many 
active volcanoes, which, in some eruptions, have scattered 
ashes to immense distances. Of these, the largest is Klutschen, 
latitude 56° north, which rises at once from the sea to the 
prodigious height of 15,763 feet. 

164. The Kurile chain of islands constitutes the prolongation 
of this range, which is continued through Jesso, Niphon, Loo- 
Choo, and Formosa to the Philippine Islands and the Mo- 
luccas. 

165. Java is said to contain thirty-eight considerable volca- 
noes, some of which are more than 10,000 feet high. They are 
remarkable for the quantity of sulphur and sulphurous vapors 
which they discharge. They rarely emit lava, but rivers of mud 
issue from them in great quantities. There are numerous 
extinct craters on the island of Java filled with water strongly 
impregnated with sulphuric acid, and the streams flowing from 
them will support no living creature. 

166. The Indian and Pacific oceans contain a great number 
of volcanic islands, interspersed with those of coral formation. 
The former are lofty, and present evidence that they have been 
undergoing upheaval in modern times ; the latter are very low, 
consisting of reefs of coral, usually with lagoons or lakes in 
their centers. 

167. Volcanic Regions of the Mediterranean. — Of the 
volcanic regions in, or bordering on, the Mediterranean Sea, are 
those of Greece and Italy, with the adjacent islands. In the 
Grecian Archipelago is the island of Santorin, a grand center 
of volcanic action, and the Ionian Isles are continually con- 
vulsed. Vesuvius and Etna, — the former in southern Italy, 
and the latter in the island of Sicily, — are among the most re- 
markable volcanoes in the world. The volcanic region which 
traverses the northern shore of the Mediterranean is supposed 
to extend in the east through Asia Minor, and the countries 
bordering on the Caspian Sea to central Asia, and on the west, 
through the southern part of Spain and Portugal to the Azores. 



LESSON XV. 

VESUVIUS, ETNA, ETC. 

168. Vesuvius. — This volcano is situated about six miles 
from Naples, and rises in a pyramidal form from a large plain 
to an elevation of 3,948 feet. It has been subject to many 
powerful convulsions, some of which have produced great devas- 
tation in the surrounding districts. 

Questions. — 163. Course of the volcanic line from Alaska ? Volcanoes of Kamtchatka ? 
Klutschen ? 164. Through what chain of islands is the range prolonged ? Through 
what other islands is the chain continued? 165. Number of volcanoes in Java? For 
what are they remarkable ? Ejected matter? Extinct craters? 166. Extent of volcanoes 
in the Indian and Pacific oceans ? How interspersed ? Character of t.he volcanic islands 
of the coral islands ? 167. Volcanic regions of the Mediterranean ? Sanlorin ? Ionian 
Isles? Vesuvius and Etna? Through what countries does this volcanic region extend 
on the east ? On the west ? 168. Vesuvius, where situated ? Its form and eleva- 
tion? Convulsions? 



22 



THE LAND. 



169. The following description of its crater is by an Amer- 
ican* who visited it in 1S51 : 

" After passing through thick clouds of steam charged with the suffocat- 
ing sulphurous acid gas which greatly annoyed our lungs, when the wiud 
cleared our visicn wo found ourselves on the narrow rim of the great 
crater. It was so narrow that only two persons could walk upon it 

abreast On this narrow rim we walked on a surface not more 

than six or eight feet wide, with the terrific crater, 1,000 feet deep, on one 
side, and the abrupt descent of 1,800 feet on the other side, into the valley 
of Somma. It was a spectacle truly sublime, awfully grand and appalling. 
The heat below sent up, in throes and spasms, dense clouds of steam and 
sulphurous acid gas, which, at short intervals, filled the crater, and all that 
appeared was a pillar of a cloud, in which we were often involved and 
half suffocated ; we stood with arms locked, for then it was unsafe to move 
until a whirlwind swept the crater clear, and we could see into its profound 
abyss. 

170. " Nothing could be more perfectly formed than this crater. It was 
a magnificent hollow cone, whose nether apex opened into the great world 
of fire below ; still the fire we did not see, although we had the most de- 
cisive proof of its existence and continued action in the violent ejection 
of steam and gas, filling every few minutes this vast funnel, whoso diam- 
eter across from side to side was probably 1,000 feet ; but the dense cloud 
of steam and noxious gas which hovered to leeward over a large portion 
of the circular orifice, rendered it impossible to walk around it, or even to 




CRATER OF VESUVIUS IN 1829. 

ascertain whether a continuity of surface, free from cross fractures and 
chasms, would render it practicable without the most imminent danger." 

171. The earliest recorded eruption of Vesuvius is that which 
happened in the year of our Lord 79, and by which the cities 
of Herculaneum and Pompeii were destroyed. 

172. History info;ms us of that sad catastrophe, but the sites of those 
cities had become unknown, and it was not until the last century that they 
were discovered. Herculaneum, which was discovered in 1711, lies five miles 
from Naples, immediately adjacent to the eastern shores of the hay, and is 
still partly covered by the large modern village of Kesina. Pompeii, dis- 
covered in 1748, is situated farther to the southeast, twelve miles distant 
from Naples. A great part of it has been cleared from the ashes under which 
it had so long lain buried, and it exhibits to view the full picture of what a 
Roman city was,-temples, theaters, baths, private habitations, the shops 
of the different trades, the implements with which they were carried on, and 
even the materials upon which these were employed. 

173. In the vicinity of Naples there are other evidences 

Questions.— 169. Width of the crater's rim ? Its depth ? Clouds of steam ? 170. Form 
of the crater? Existence of Are ? Diameter of Che funnel 1 What other facts are men- 
tioned ? 171. Earliest recorded eruption of Vesuvius ? What cities were destroyed by it ? 



of the volcanic character of this district. Numerous hot baths 
abound, supplied with steam and water from the vents in the 




* Professor B. Silliman. 



VESUVIUS. 

earth. The Solfatara is the name of a nearly extinguished 
volcano, giving vent continually to aqueous vapor, together 
with sulphurous and muriatic gases, like those which escape 
from Vesuvius. 

174. Etna. — This celebrated volcano is situated on the east- 
ern side of the island of Sicily. It rises near the sea in solitary 
grandeur to the height of nearly eleven thousand feet. Its 
base is almost circular, and is about eighty-seven English miles 
in circumference. Its summit is about thirty miles from the 
town of Catania, a sea-port to the south. 

175. Etna has been longest known to history of any volcano. 
It was known to be in action 480 years B.C. Here, according 
to ancient mythology, the thunderbolts of Jupiter were forged; 
here, also, was raised a temple to Vulcan, where the fire never 
ceased to burn. From the above-mentioned date, during the 
whole subsequent period, it has been subject to jieriodical con- 
vulsions, with intervals of repose varying greatly in duration. 

The recorded eruptions of Etna are B.C. 480 — 427, interval 53 years. 

... .B.C. 427— 396, " 31 " 

... .B.C. 396— 140, " 256 " 
" " between B.C. 140 — 122, four eruptions. 

B.C. 122— 56, interval 66 years. 
" " between B.C. 56 & 38, three eruptions. 

" " B.C. 38— A.D. 40, interval 78y's. 

A.D. 40— 251, " 211 " 

A.D.251— 812,, " 561 " 

A.D.812— 1169, " 357 " 

From this period to the present the agitations of Etna have increased in 
frequency and power : 

Twelfth and thirteenth centuries 3 eruptions 

Fourteenth 2 " 

Fifteenth 4 

Sixteenth 3 " 

Seventeenth 8 " 

Eighteenth 14 " 

Nineteenth to 1832 6 

176. The most remarkable eruption of Etna in modern times 
occurred in 1669. It was preceded by an earthquake, which 

Questions. — 172. Herculaneum, when discovered and where situated ? Pompeii, when 
discovered and where situated? P.emains found? 173. Other evidences of the volcanic 
character of the district around Naples? HotbaihB? The Solfatara? 17-1. Where is Etna 
siiuated? Psheight? Form and circumference of its base? 175. Date of itsearlicst known 
eruption ? What events did mythology connect with the mountain ? Subsequent erup- 
tions? 176. Eruption of J GGu ? How preceded ? Destruction caused ? Amount of lava? 



EARTHQUAKES. 



23 



™ 




MOUNT ETNA. 



leveled to the ground all the houses in Nicolosi, a town sit- 
uated twenty miles distant. A 
fissure, six feet broad, and of un- 
jjfjyJsi^hS known depth, opened with a loud 

_,'-./■ '.;";"" v'°" JS°; : ;-.V"' crash, and ran to within a mile of 

^BKBISi the summit. A stream of lava 
I flowed down the side of the mount- 
|* aiD, and, after destroying fourteen 
L towns and villages, overwhelmed 
•S a part of the city of Catania. This 
|J mass, at its entrance into the sea, 
was six hundred yards broad and 
forty feet deep. The solid con- 
tents of this immense stream of 
lava is estimated at 93,838,590 
cubic feet. 

177. Volcanoes of Iceland. — Iceland, in the North At- 
lantic, seems to form a volcanic region by itself. From the 
beginning of the twelfth century there is clear evidence that, 
during the whole period, there has never been an interval 
of more than forty, and very rarely one of twenty years, with- 
out either an eruption or a great earthquake. So intense is the 
energy of the volcanic action in this region, that some eruptions 
of Hecla have lasted six years without ceasing. Earthquakes 
have often shaken the whole island at once, causing great 
changes in the interior, such as the sinking down of hills, the 
rending of mountains, the desertion by rivers of their channels, 
and the appearance of new lakes. New islands have often 
been thrown up near the coast, some of which still exist ; while 
others have disappeared, either by subsidence or the action 
of the waves.* 

178. The greatest eruption on record proceeded from Skaptar 
Jokul, in Iceland, in 1783. The lava flowed in two nearly 
opposite streams, fifty miles in one direction and forty in the 
other. The breadth which one branch attained in the low 
countries was from twelve to fifteen miles, that of the other 
about seven. The ordinary height of both currents was one 
hundred feet, but in narrow defiles it sometimes amounted to 
six hundred. It has been calculated that the mass of lava 
thrown out during this eruption surpassed in magnitude the 
bulk of Mount Blanc. 

179. The eruption of Skaptar Jokul did not entirely cease 
till the end of two years; and when the tract were visited 
eleven years afterward, columns of smoke were found still 
rising from parts of the lava. The destruction of life and 
property was immense. No less than twenty villages were 
destroyed, besides those inundated by water. More than nine 
thousand human beings — nearly one fifth the entire popula- 
tion — perished, together with an immense number of cattle, 
partly by the depredations of the lava, partly by the noxious 
vapors which impregnated the air, and, in part, by the famine 
caused by showers of ashes throughout the island, and the de- 
sertion of the coasts by the fish. 

Questions.— 177. Iceland ? Frequency or eruptions ? Energy of volcanic action? Rav- 
ages of earthquakes ? New islands? 1T8. Eruption of Skaptar Jokul? Give particulars 
of the flow of the lava. Brefdlh and deplh of the lava currents? 1T9. Duration of the 
eruption? Destruction of life and properly ? ISO. The term Geyser, how derived ? To 
what applied? Irregular aclion of geysers. 181. Give particulars of the Great Geyser. 
Describe the eruptions. 

* Sir Charles Lyell. 



180. Geysers. — The term Geyser is from the Icelandic 
geysa, which signifies to rage, or burst forth impetuously. It 
is applied to the hot springs which occur in a remarkable 
group of fifty or more which occur iii Iceland, about thirty-six 
miles from Hecla. Geysers are not constantly active ; few 
of them play longer than five or six minutes at a time, although 
sometimes half an hour. The grand eruptions are often after 
intervals of a day or two. 

181. The Great Geyser has a basin at its summit sixty feet 
in diameter, and six or seven deep. At the bottom of the 
basin there is a well or funnel, ten feet wide at the mouth, but 
gradually narrowing to seven or eight, with a perpendicular 
descent of seventy feet. The eruptions are preceded by sub- 
terraneous noises like the distant firing of cannon, and shakings 
of the earth. The sound then increases and becomes more 
violent, till at length a column of water is thrown up to the 
height of one or two hundred feet. After the water ceases to 
play, a column of steam, rushing up with amazing force and 
thundering sound, terminates the eruption.* 



LESSON XVI 

EARTHQUAKES. 

182. Earthquakes appear to be due to the same cause wliich 
occasions a volcanic eruption, namely, the energy of elastic 
vapors struggling to find a vent from beneath the surface of the 
earth. They are most common in volcanic districts ; but those 
at a greater distance from volcanoes are more violent, as if the 
latter afforded passage for the eruptive energy, which, at other 
points, cracked and upheaved the surface in effecting its disen- 
gagement. 

183. The best proof that earthquakes and volcanoes nave 
a similar origin is the constancy with which they attend each 
other. A few examples are selected in illustration. 

184. The same night Lima was destroyed by an earthquake, four new vol- . 
canic vents were found in the Andes. Soon after the earthquake at Lisbon, 
in 1755, there happened some of the most violent eruptions that ever af- 
flicted the world. Thirty days after the destruction of the city of Caracas, 
the volcano of St. Vincent became active, and at the moment it broke forth 
the earth shaken over an extent of nearly 20,000 square miles. 

185. Earthquakes differ greatly in intensity. The agitation 
is" sometimes so weak as to be scarcely sensible ; at other times 
it is so violent as to overturn cities, prostrate trees, turn the 
course of rivers, and change the entire aspect of a country. 

186. The movements of the surface during an earthquake are 
various — vertical, horizontal, and undulatory, or whirling. Low 
rumbling noises resembling distant thunder, or sharp sounds 
resembling the clanking of chains and discharges of artillery, 
are commonly heard in great convulsions. 

187. The violence of an earthquake seldom lasts more than a 
minute ; but successive shocks are sometimes felt at very slow 

Questions.— KZ. To what do earthquakes appear to he due? Where most common? 
Where most violent, and why? 1S3. Best proof that volcanoes and earthquakes have a 
similar origin ? 184. What examples arc givin in illustration ? 1S5. Intensity of earth- 
quakes ? 186 Movements of the surface during an earthquake? Noises commonly 
heard in great convulsions ? 1ST. Violence of an earthquake ? What is said of the 
most destructive earthquakes ? 

* Sir Charles Lyell. 



24 



THE LAND. 



intervals. The most destructive earthquakes are the shortest 
in duration, amounting to little more than the paroxysm of a 
few moments. 

188. The great earthquake of Lisbon, November 1, 1775, was over in 
about six minutes ; the three shocks which reduced the city of Caracas to 
ruins, March 20, 1812, transpired in the space of fifty seconds; and the 
principal convulsion which leveled the city of Conception with the ground, 
February 20, 1S35, lasted but sis seconds. 

189. In some countries, earthquakes of greater or less vio- 
lence occur almost daily ; and in order to guard against their 
destructive effects, the inhabitants seldom build their houses 
more than one story in height [see view of Caracas]. At Lima, 




CARACAS. 

on the Peruvian eoasfc, an average of forty-five shocks may be 
expected in the year. At Coquimbo, on the coast of Chile, 
there were noticed during one year not less than sixty-one 
convulsions, not including the slighter ones, which were even 
more numerous. 

190. Among the remarkable phenomena attending earth- 
quakes may be reckoned the permanent elevation and depres- 

Queslions.— 18S. Examples? 1S9. Frequency of earthquakes in Fomc countries? 
Average annual number at Lima? Number of convulsions noticed in one year a' Co- 
quimbo? 100. Phenomena attending earthquakes? 191. Earthquake cf Chile ia 1S22? 
Give particulars. 192. Give the examples of permanent land deprcB^ioa. 



sion of large areas of land, the opening of extensive fissures, 
great oceanic waves, etc. 

191. The earthquake of Chile, in 1822, agitated the coast for 
a distance of 1,000 miles. The rise upon the coast was from 
two to four feet : at the distance of a mile inland it was sup- 
posed to be nearly twice as many. It has been conjectured 
that the area over which this permanent alteration of level 
extended may have been equal to 100,003 square miles. 

192. Numerous instances of the depression of land have 
occurred. During the great earthquake at Lisbon, in 1755, the 
new quay subsided and its place was occupied by water 600 
feet deep. In 1819, a region of 2,000 square miles, near Ihe 

mouth of the Indus, embracing the Fort of Sindree, 
was submerged, the ITllah Bund, a mound near 
by, rising as a compensating elevation. 

193. Clefts or fissures are frequently formed by 
earthquakes, in which houses, trees, animals, and 
men have been engulfed in an instant ; the earth 
sometimes closing up, and no vestige of them 
remaining on the surface. The great earthquake 
of Calabria, in 1783, furnished numerous instances 
of such chasms. 

194. The neighboring waters of the ocean, during 
an earthquake, are strongly agitated. During the 
earthquake at Lisbon a great wave swept over the 
coast of Spain, and is said to have been sixty feet 
high at Cadiz. At Tangier, in Africa, it rose and 
fell eighteen times on the coast : at Funchal, in 
Madeira, it rose fifteen feet above high-water mark. 

195. Earthquakes have caused an immense de- 
struction of life and property, and in some parts 
of the world, as in South America, the inhabitants 
are in constant apprehension of danger. 

196. During the earthquake which visited Peru in 174G, 3,800 of the in- 
habitants perished. In 1797 Peru was visited by another earthquake, on 
which occasion 16,000 persons perished. The earthquake at Caracas, in 
1812, destroyed 10,000 inhabitants. The great earthquake of Lisbon, in 
1755, destroyed 60,000 persons in the course of about six minutes. The 
number of persons lost during the earthquake in the two Calabrias and 
Sicily, in 1783, is estimated at 40,000 ; and about 20,000 more died by epi- 
demics which resulted from it. 

Question*.— 193. What is said of clefts or fissures ? 194. Example of oceanic movements 
caused by earthquakes? 195. Fatal effects ofearthquakes? 190. Number of persons who 
perished during the earthquak) of Peru, in 1746?— 1797?— the earthquake at Caracas, in 
1812 ?— the earthquake at Lisbon, in 1755 ?— the earthquake of the two Calabriae, in 17S3 ? 



PART II. 



THE 



ATERS. 




LESSON I. 

CHEMICAL COMPOSITION OF WATER. 

ATER, which is necessary to 
the support of animal and 
vegetable life, is very widely 
diffused and copiously sup- 
plied. It is found in three 
forms : vaporous in the at- 
mosphere, solid in ice and 
snow, and liquid in rivers and 
seas. It belongs to this part 
of physical geography to treat 
of it in the last condition. 

198. Water is composed of two gases, oxygen and hydro- 
gen, in the proportion of eight parts of the former to one of 
the latter. It is one of the most marvelous facts in the natural 
world, that, though hydrogen is highly inflammable, and oxy- 
gen is a supporter of combustion, both, combined in water, 
form an element destructive to fire. By processes well known 
to the chemist, water may be readily resolved into its constit- 
uent eements. 

199. Pure water is destitute of color, taste, and smell. It 
seldom occurs, however, in this state, but contains various in- 
gredients, derived either from the atmosphere or from the 
earth. Rain-water is the purest that can be obtained except 
by distillation. Spring and well water contain many earthy 
substances in solution. The brackish taste of wells in coun- 
tries abounding in limestone is owing to the presence of that 
substance. River-water has its character determined by the 
soil and vegetation of the country through which it flows. 

200. The waters of the globe are divided into the fresh and 
salt. The fresh waters include those of all streams and rivers, 
nearly all the springs, and the greater number of lakes and 
marshes. They are so called because they contain no amount 
of saline matter unfitting them for use. It is supposed that 
the lakes of North Americj contain more than half the amount 
of fresh water on the face of the globe. 

201. Salt water is that which fills the vast basins of the 
ocean, besides numerous lakes and springs : it forms by far the 
largest portion of the liquid element. The proportion of saline 
matter which the ocean contains is about 3J per cent. The 
principal salts contained in sea-water are common salt (chloride 
of sodium), Glauber's salt (sulphate of soda), Epsom salt (sul- 
phate of magnesia), chloride of magnesium, sulphate and car 
bonate of lime, — common salt being the most considerable in 
amount. Supposing the sea to have a mean depth of 1,000 

QueUions. — 197 What is said of water? In what three forms is it found? 198. Of what 
is water composed ? What marvelous fact is stated respecting wat«-r? 199. What is tiie 
character of pure water ? Does it commonly occur in this state ? What kind of water is 
the purest? What do spring and well water contain ? To what is the brackish taste of 
wells in limestone countries owing? By what Is the character of r.ver-water determined? 
200. How are the waters of the globe divided ? What do the fresh waters iuclude ? Why 
are they socilled? What is said of the lakes of North America? 



feet, it has been calculated that the amount of common sa!t 
it would contain would be equal in extent to five times the 
mass of the Alps, or one third less than that of the Himalaya 
Mountains. 

202. Oceanic waters vary in the quantity of saline matter 
they contain in different places. From observations made, it is 
found that the degree of saltness diminishes toward the poles, 
and also near the shores. This is owing to the melting of snow 
and ice, and to the volumes of fresh water poured in by the 
rivers. It is also ascertained that the waters of the southern 
hemisphere contain more salt, than those of the northern, while 
the Atlantic is in excess of the Pacific. 

203. Salt water has an extensive distribution in lakes and 
springs, and these are remarkable for the great proportion 
of saline matter they contain. The western part of Asia and 
the southern part of Russia constitute the great salt-water 
lake region of the globe. The Caspian Sea, lakes Aral, Uru- 
miah, Elton, and the Dead Sea occur in this district. Some 
of these waters are so salt as to irritate the skin. Fish can not 

five in them, and if a bird dips 

js!F: in their surface, its wings, on 

«p ~ drying, are incrusted with salt. 

JlfM * The waters of the Dead Sea con- 

1 Ml tain about 25 per cent, of sa- 

■ i -. . ■-■ line matter. Lake Elton, in the 

steppe east of the Volga, is more 
strongly impregnated with sa- 
line ingredients than any other 
known example, containing 29 
per cent. 

204. Water is one of the most 
widely diffused bodies of nature. 
We have seen (12) that the sur- 
face of the earth is estimated to contain 196,500,000 square 
miles, and that the dry land occupies only about 51,000,000— 
leaving 145,500,000 square miles to be occupied by the fluid 
element. 

205. The benevolence of the Deity is manifest in the wide 
diffusion of this element over the globe. As a nutritive or 
alimentary substance, it is indispensable to both the animal 
and the vegetable world. It serves invaluable purposes in 
the arts and manufactures ; in its application as a motive 
power ; and, when occurring in large bodies, in the form of 
rivers, lakes, and seas, as a medium for the more rapid or more 
commodious transport- of goods or persons from one locality 
to another. To the vast reservoir of the ocean are we in- 
debted for the clouds which carry the moisture from the sea 



sPSBSgi 




DEAD SEA. 



Questions.— 201. What is said of salt water? What proportion of saline ingredients 
does it contain ? What are the principal salts in sea-water ? Which is the most consider- 
able in' amount" Illustrate. 202. How do oceanic waters vary? Where is the saltness 
of tbe ocean found to diminish? &.use? Between what other regions is the saltness 
unequal? 203. What is taid of salt lakes and springs ? Where is the great salt-water 
lake region? Examples. 204. Diffusion of water? .Extent of the liquid element? 
205. Mention some of the uses of water. 



26 



THE WATERS. 




MINERAL SPRINGS. 



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and let it down upon the parched and thirsty earth in refresh- 
ing rain; indeed, when we study the uses and properties of 
water, and notice how universally it is supplied to the inhab- 
itants of the earth in the conditions best adapted to their 
wants and necessities, we can not but be filled with gratitude 
to Him who so created and distributed it. 



Note. — The questions on the neighboring map should receive 
attention before proceeding with the following lesson 



LESSON II. 

MINERAL SPRINGS. 

206. Mineral waters may be divided into four classes : 
(1) acidulous, such as contain carbonic acid ; (2) chalybeate, or 
springs holding in solution either the carbonate or the sulphate 
of iron ; (3) sulphurous, or springs containing either sulphureted 
hydrogen, or sulphuret of lime, etc., and which are distin- 
guished by their repulsive smell ; and (4) saline, or springs 
holding in solution a considerable portion of neutral salts, which 
render them hard, and impart to them a disagreeable taste, 
unfitting them for a beverage, or for culinary purposes. 

207. Acidulous waters present a sparkling appearance which 
they owe to the presence of carbonic acid gas. This gas is 
very plentifully disengaged from springs in almost all countries, 
but more particularly in the vicinity of active or extinct vol- 
canoes. Acidulated waters sparkle when poured from one 
vessel into another. A remarkable spring containing water 
of this description occurs in Asia Minor, near Kiz-hisar, which 
rises very cold, but bubbles up like a boiling caldron. A small 
river in South America, a tributary of the Magdalena, which rises 
in a volcanic mountain, has its waters so greatly impregnated 
with this gas, that the Spaniards call it Vinagre (vinegar). 

208. Chalybeate springs are such as contain oxide of iron ; 
the term is, however, occasionally applied to springs contain- 
ing other substances. The springs at Tonbridge Wells and 
Brighton, England, belong to this class. 

209. Sulphurous springs are so named because they contain 
sulphur, which usually occurs in the form of sulphureted hy- 
drogen, or oi sulphate of lime. Of the springs of this class are 
those of Harrowgate, and St. Bernard's Well, England. Sul- 
phurous springs are very numerous in volcanic countries. 

210. Saline springs contain a greater or less proportion 
of chloride of sodium, or common salt, and are very generally 
diffused throughout the surface of the earth. So great is the 
quantity of chloride of sodium in some of these springs, that 
they yield one fourth of their weight in salt. The springs at Sa- 
lina and Syracuse, in the State of New York, are noted examples 
of this class. The principal spring at Salina village affords an 
inexhaustible supply of water, yielding to every forty gallons 
about one bushel of pure salt. In 1 850 there were manufactured 
at these springs over 3i millions of bushels of salt. Salt springs 
occur also on the Great and Little Kanawha rivers, in Virginia, 



~~Q,,es<ions— 206. Mineral waters, how divided? Acidulous? Chalybeate? Sulphurous^ 
Saline? 207 Appearance of acidulous waters? Carbonic acid gas? Spring near Kiz- 
Msar? AriverinSouth America? 208. Chalybeate springs? Examples. 209. Sulphurous 
springs? Examples. Where numerous? 210. Saline springs? Quantity of salt they con- 
tain ? Spnn-s at Salina and Syracuse 1 On the Great and Little Kanawha ? At Droitwich « 



28 



THE WATERS. 



which yiold about a bushel of salt from every 60 or 70 gallons 
of brine. At Droitwich, England, is a celebrated brine spring 
which produces annually about 700,000 bushels of salt. 

211. Besides the springs above described, there are others 
whose waters are impregnated with various mineral substances 
which impart to them medicinal properties, as those at Chelten- 
ham, England, at Carlsbad, Germany, and at other places. 

212. The mineral springs of the United States are numerous 
and valuable : they are extensively distributed, but those of 
New York and Virginia are the most celebrated. Among 
those in the State of New York are, the chalybeate springs 
of Saratoga, the sulphur springs of Sharon, Avon, and Clifton, 
and the petrifying springs of Madison and Saratoga counties. 
Saratoga is remarkable for the number and variety of its 
springs, the waters of which are celebrated for their medicinal 
properties. 

213. Among the most celebrated of the springs at Saratoga, are Congress 
Spring, Sigh Pock Spring, Hamilton Spring, Putnam's Spring, Iodine Sprir.g, Pa- 
vilion Spring, and Empire Spring, not any two of which are alike in the compo- 
sition of their waters. Congress Spring is the general favorite of visitors ; it 
is highly acidulous. Hamilton, Putnam, and Pavilion springs are chalybeate. 
Iodine Spring contains but a small proportion of iron, and may be drank by 
a certain class of invalids, with whom iron proves a decided injury. 

214. Virginia abounds with mineral springs, but the best 
known are the White and Blue Sulphur Springs of Greenbrier 
County, the Salt and Red Sulphur, and the Sweet in Monroe 
County, Hot and Warm in Bath, Berkley in Morgan, Fauquier 
White Sulphur in Fauquier, Shannondale in Frederick, Alum in 
Rockbridge, Jordon's White Sulphur in Frederick, Red in Alle- 
ghany, Grayson in Carroll, Botetourt in Roanoke, Holston in 
Scott, Augusta Springs and Dagguj Springs in Botetourt. 




LOD0E.E WATERFALL. 



LESSON III. 

RIVERS. 

215. Rivers commonly take 
their rise in springs, lakes, or the 
thawed ice and snow of elevated 
mountains. The smaller streams 
-which unite to form them are 
variously called rills, rivulets, and 
brooks. Though rivers frequent- 
ly rise in lakes, or spring from 
small elevations, the great store- 
houses from which the mightiest 
streams are fed are the ice-clad 
mountains of table-lands. 

216. The basin of a river com- 
prehends the entire country drain- 
ed by it and its tributaries. The 
elevatedland separating one basin 
from another is called the loaler- 



Questions.—i\l. Other kinds of mineral springs ? 212. Mineral springs of the U. States ? 
What noted springs in the State of New York ? For what is Saratoga remarkable ? 213. 
Which are the most celebrated springs at Saratoga? 214. Principal sp'ings in Virginia? 
215. Where do rivers commonly take their rise? What are the great storehouses from 
■which they are fed? 216. What is the basin of a river ? The water paning or watershed? 
What elevated water-parting is mentioned? Have water-partings conimunly a great 
elevation ? 




parting or watershed, of which the ridge of a house-roof affords 
an illustration. This is sometimes a lofty range of mountains, 
as the Alps, streams from which flow into opposite and distant 
seas. But commonly a water-parting has no great elevation, a 
slight rise of the surface being sufficient to separate streams 
whose mouths are thousands of miles apart. South America 
presents the rare example of two river-basins connected by a 
navigable natural channel. This is caused by the river Orinoco 
branching off in its upper course and proceeding by different 
channels to the sea. 

217. South America is remarkable for containing the largest 
river-basin in the world, that of the 
Amazon measuring 2,275,000 square 
miles. Next to it, in point of ex- 
tent, is the basin of the Mississippi 
and Missouri, in North America, 
measuring 1,333,000 sq. miles. The 
greatest river-basin in Asia is that 
of the Obi, 1,250,000 square miles; 
the greatest in Africa is that of the 
Nile, supposed to contain 1,240,0C0 
square miles ; and the greatest in 
Europe is that of the Volga, 528,0C0 
square miles. 

218. The course of rivers is com- 
monly winding. In some cases it 
is so tortuous that its actual length 
is three times that of a straight li'ie 
drawn from its source to its mouth, 
as the Forth in Scotland ; in oth- 
ers, as the Hudson,— it is mainly straight. The Mississippi 
River is remarkable for its windings, or bends, as they are lo- 
cally called. 

219. In 1848 the Raccourci Cut-off, an artificial channel, was 
made in this stream a little below the confluence of the Red 
River. The distance, about 30 miles, in the old channel a com- 
mon steamboat would be three hours in going round, and now 
one can run through the cut-off in ten miuutes up, and in two 
or three minutes down. The passage was at first a narrow one, 
but it has become so widened and deepened by the force of the 
current that the largest trees of the forest will go down root 
foremost, and the tops of them will disappear. 

220. The actual meanderings of the Missouri and the Missis- 
sippi, or the difference between the direct distance from the 
source of the former to the mouth of the latter and that by 
their channels, is estimated at 2,148 geographical miles. The 
meanderings of the other principal streams, including that of 
their tributaries, is given approximately in the following table: 

Rivers. Meandering. 

P„hine 240 geographical miles. 

Elbe 340 

Rhone. 352 

Dnieper 532 

Don 552 " 



Questions.— What rare example is mentioned of two river basins being connected by a 
navigable natural channel ? 217. For what is South America remarkable ? Extent of the 
basin of the Amazon? Of the Mississippi and Missouri? The greatest river-basin in 
Asia, and its extent? In Africa, and its supposed ex ent? In Europe, and its extent? 
218. What is said of the course of rivers ? The Forth in Scotland ? The Hudson ? The 
Mississippi? 219. Raccourci Cut-off? 220. Meanderings of the Mississippi ? Other 
rivers ? 



WINDINGS OF THE MISSISSIPPI. 



RIVERS. 



29 



Rivera. Meandering. 

Danube 610 geographical miles. 

Ganges 856 

Indus 864 

Euphrates 892 

La Plata 892 

Nile 920 

Orinoco 984 

Lena 1,004 

Obi 1,044 

Mackenzie 1,156 

Hoang-Ho 1,160 

Volga 1,440 

Amazon 1,562 

Yenesei 1,572 

221. The windings of rivers very greatly augment tlicir util- 
ity, in affording facilities for a more widely extended intercom- 
munication, and in preventing that velocity of current which 
would otherwise prevent their being navigated or bridged with 
safety. We can not regard this arrangement otherwise than as 
a striking evidence of the wisdom and goodness cf the Creator. 




LESSON I V . 

RIVERS- (conttnt-ed). 

222. The fall of rivers is the 
difference of level between their 
source and mouth : it varies 
from a few feet to many thou- 
sands. That of the Volga, in 
Europe, amounts to only 633 
feet in a course of 2,400 miles, 
about three and one eighth inch- 
es to a mile ; on the other hand, 
the Ganges, in Asia, falls 13,672 
feet in a course of 1,680 miles, 
or more than eight feet to a 
mile. It is in the upper courses 
of rivers, in mountainous or 
hilly regions, that the chief 
portion of fall is accomplished, 
while the lower courses have 
a placid flow, suitable for navigation. 

223. A rapid is a rush or fall of water where the bed of a 
river has a moderate inclination : a cataract is where it has a 
steeper descent, or a vertical depression. Falls formed by riv- 
ulets or mountain torrents receive the name of cascades. 

224. Cataracts are among the most sublime objects of na- 
ture, the effect they produce on the mind of the beholder 
depending more on the volume of water than the distance of 
the descent. Though they are to be found in all countries, 
those of North America are by far the most extensive and 
picturesque. 

225. The Falls of Niagara, in the river by the same name, 
which connects Lake Erie to Lake Ontario, constitute one 
of the greatest natural spectacles on the globe. The river, 
about th-ee quarters of a mile wide, after forming a succession 

Questions. — 221. How do the windings of rivers augment their utili'y? How must wc re- 
gard this arrangement ? 222. What is the fall of rivers, and how does it vary ? What is that 
of the Volga ? The Gangec ? Where is the chief portion of fall accomplished ? 



FALLS OF THE MINNEHAHA 



of rapids, falls suddenly to a depth of 153 feet. The cataract 
is divided by Goat Island into two parts. The largest of these, 
on the Canadian side, called the Horse-shoe Fall, from its shape, 
is 1,800 feet — more than one third of a mile — broad, and 153 
feet in height. The fall, on the American side, is 600 feet in 
breadth and 164 feet in height. A cloud of mist points out the 
locality of the cataract, and under favorable circumstances its 
roar may be heard, it is said, at a distance of 40 miles. 




FALLS OF ST ANTHONY. 

226. The Falls of St. Anthony, in the Mississippi, about 400 
miles from its source, and just above the mouth of the St. 
Peters, stand nearly at the head of the navigation of that 
stream. They have a descent of from 17 to 20 feet, and arc 
thus described by a recent traveler : " Above the falls the 
river is about 600 yards in width. In its descent it is divided 
by Cataract Island, a high rocky mass, covered with trees and 
shrubbery. All around this island, above and below, are strewn 
huge masses of limestone rocks, heaped in Titanic confusion, and 

attesting the mightiness 

jjg rfc3 g S?fj^v of the water with which 

^^ ssi ^ 5 BjljB^- they seem to be contend- 

^^ Sj jj jfiBB §& i«g." 

227. Among the other 
noted falls in America are 
those of the Missouri, 500 
miles from its source, a suc- 
cession of rapids and cat- 
aracts, 26, 47, and 87 feet 
in peipendicular height ; 
the rapids of St. Lawrence, 
above Montreal, extending 
about 9 miles ; the Great 
and Little Falls of the Po- 
tomac, in Maryland ; the 
Falls of Montmorenci, near 
Quebec, which descend 240 
feet in an unbroken sheet ; 
and the Cataract of Te- 

quendama, in the environs of Santa Fe de Bogota, a magnificent 

fall of 574 feet. 

Questions.— 223. What is a rapid ? A catnract? Cascade? 224. Whore are the greatest 
cataracts? 223. What is said of the Falls f Niagara? Describe it. 220. Give particulars 
of the Falls of Ct. Anthony. -T„ Other noted l-'.'.s in America ? 




FALLS OF MONTMORENCI. 



30 



THE WATERS. 



228. The Great Falls of the Missouri are the grandest in all 
North America, those of Niagara excepted ; and although the 
latter exceed the former with respect to volume of water, depth 
of descent, and awful grandeur, yet the former are far more 
diversified and beautiful. These falls are within sixty geo- 
graphical miles of the easternmost range of the Rocky Mount- 
ains. They were discovered by Captain Lewis while engaged 
in exploring the Missouri. Hearing a sound like that of a fall 
of water, he proceeded in the direction of it. " As he ad- 
vanced, a spray arose above the plain like a column of smoke, 
and vanished in an instant. Toward this point he directed his 
steps ; and having traveled seven miles after first hearing the 
sound, he reached the falls about mid-day. The hills as he 
approached were difficult of access, and 200 feet high. Down 
these he hurried with impatience, and seating himself on some 
rocks under the center of the falls, enjoyed the sublime specta- 
cle of this stupendous cataract, which since the creation has 
been lavishing its magnificence on the desert, unknown to 
civilization." 

229. The most noted falls of the Eastern Continent are Terni, 

Italy, a fall of the Velino, of 
300 feet, usually regarded as 
the finest European cataract ; 
Staubach, near Lauterbrun- 
nen, in Switzerland, a per- 
pendicular descent of 800 
feet ; Rhinefall, near Schafl- 
hausen, a fall of the river 
Rhine in three distinct branch- 
es over a precipice upward 
ward of 80 feet high ; Reich- 
enbach, canton of Bern, a 
series of six falls, amounting 
to 1,000 feet ; Ache, a small 
river of Bavaria, descending 
in five falls 2,000 feet ; Evan- 
son, a torrent of Mount Rosa, 
1,100 feet; Cauvery, southern 

India, two grand falls near Seringapatam 810 feet ; Girsupah, 
near a town of that name in the western Ghauts, a single fall 
of a considerable stream, 872 feet ; the cataracts of the Nile, 
in Nubia and r : outhern Egypt, of ancient celebrity ; and Vic- 
toria Falls, on the Zambezi, which are described as scarcely 
less grand than Niagara. 




REICHENBACH. 



LESSON V. 

KIVERS— (continued). 

230. The termination of rivers is commonly by a single 
mouth, as in the instances of the St. Lawrence and the Hudson ; 
but many streams, flowing through alluvial regions, carry along 

Questions.— 228. The Great Falls of the Missouri ? Give an account of its discovery. 
229. Give the particulars of the following falls and rapids : Terni, Staubach, Rhinefall, 
lteichenbach, Ache, Evanson, Cauvery, Girsupah, Nile, Victoria. 230. Termination of 
rivers? Sedimentary accumulations? Deltas? 231. Delta of the Mississippi ? The rato 
of its formation ? 232. Proport'on of the sedimentary matter ? Amount annually brought 
down? 233. Sedimentary matter in the Ganges? 




DELTA OF THE MISSISSIPPI. 



sedimentary accumulations which they deposit at their mouths, 
producing formations of land, and dividing the main stream 
into branches. Such formations are called deltas, from their 
correspondence to the sharje of the Greek letter A (delta). 
^ 231. The delta of the Mis- 

sissippi consists of a long, nar- 
row tongue of land protruding 
for 50 miles into the Gulf of 
Mexico, at the end of which 
are numerous channels of dis- 
charge. This extensive for- 
z-iSla n^ti 011 Das been produced by 
IHS b the deposit of the sedimentary 
matter brought down by that 
mighty stream. The rate of 
permanent advance of the new 
land has been very slow, not exceeding, it is supposed, one 
mile in a century.* 

232. It has been calculated that the mean annual amount 
of solid matter which the water of the Mississippi contains 
is about yJfj of its weight, and that it is equal to about 3V00 
of its volume. It has also been estimated that the quan- 
tity of solid matter annually brought down by the river is 
3, 702, 758,400 cubic feet, an amount which would cover over 
eleven miles square one foot deep. 

233. The waters of the Ganges contain a much greater pro- 
portion of sedimentary matter, 
particularly during the season of 
the rains, which lasts about four 
months. The average quantity 
of solid matter suspended in the 
water during such times was by 
weight T jjih part ; and the solid 
matter discharged is ^ J „ th part in 
bulk, or 577 cubic feet per second. 

delta op the Ganges. The total annual amount of mud 

discharged is estimated at 6,368,077,440 cubic feet, a mass 
equal in weight and bulk, it has been calculated, to eighty-two 
of the great pyramids of Egypt. The Hoang-Ho, which trav- 
erses the great alluvial plain of China, is supposed to bring down 
in one hour 2,000,000 cubic feet of earth, which so thickens and 
colors the ocean by its discharges as to originate the name of 
the Yellow Sea. 

234. Rivers are grouped into two grand classes, the oceanic 
and the continental. Oceanic rivers are those which flow 
direct into the ocean, or into waters communicating with it. 
They form four distinct systems, belonging respectively to the 
Arctic, Atlantic, Pacific, and Indian oceans. 




I. System of the Arctic Ocean. 

Course. Termination. 



Length in 
Rivers. Course. Termination. English 

miles. 

Lena Eastern Siberia Arctic Ocean 2,400 

Olenek Northern Siberia Ditto 1 , 1 50 

Tenesei Central Siberia Ditto 2,000 

Obi Western Siberia Gulf of Obi 2,530 

Questions. — Total annual amount? The Tloang-llo ? 234. Rivers, how grouped? 
Oceanic rivers? Systems? Name the principal rivers belonging [o ihe sys'em cf the 
Arctic Ocean. Atlantic Ocean. Racine Ocean. Indian Ocean. 



* Sir Charles Lvell. 



RIVERS. 



31 



Length in 
Rivers. Course. Termination. English 

miles. 

Petchora Northern Russia Arctic Ocean 695 

Dwina Ditto White Sea 760 

Mackenzie British America Arctic Ocean 2, ICO 



H. Ststeji op the Atlantic Ocean. 

Neva Northern Russia Gulf of Finland . 

Vistula Poland, Prussia Baltic Sea 

Elbe . Germany German Ocean. . . 

Rhine Switzerland and Germany . .Ditto 

Loire France Bay of Biscay. . . . 

Rhone Switzerland, France Mediterranean. . . 

Danube Austrian Empire, Turkey. . Black Sea 



Dnieper Southern Russia Ditto 

Don Ditto Ditto 1 

Nile (Blue N.) Abyssinia, Nubia, Egypt Mediterranean 2 

Senegal Western Africa Atlantic Ocean . . . 

Niger Ditto Gulf of Guinea. . . .2 

Gariep Southern Africa Atlantic Ocean. . ..1 

Saskatchewan British America Hudson Bay 1 

St. Lawrence Ditto Atlantic Ocean . . .2 

Mississippi-Missouri Central North America Gulf of Mexico 4. 

Rio del Norte Mexico Ditto 1, 

Magdalena New Granada Caribbean Sea ... . 

Orinoco Venezuela Atlantic Ocean . . . 1, 

Amazon Brazil Ditto 

Araguay Ditto Ditto 1 , 

St. Francisco Ditto Ditto 1 , 

Plata Ditto Ditto 2, 



46 
630 
690 
760 
570 
4S0 
,G30 
,200 
,100 
,600 
900 
,300 
,000 
,920 
,070 
100 
400 
860 
200- 
900 
300 
500 
350 



III. Ststeji of the Pacific Ocean. 

Amour Eastern Asia Sea of Okhotsk . . .2,300 

Hoang-Ho China ".Yellow Sea 2,600 

Yang-tse-Kiang Ditto Ditto 3,200 

Si-Kiang Ditto China Sea 1.110 

Meinam Siam Gulf of Siarn 900 

Cambodia Tibet, Cochin China China Sea 2,000 

Columbia Oregon Pacific Ocean 750 

Colorado Utah, New Mexico Gulf of California. 900 

IV. Ststeji of the Indian Ocean. 

Euphrates Western Asia Persian Gulf 1,600 

Tigris Ditto Ditto 980 

Indus Northern India Arabian Sea 1,700 

Ganges Ditto Bay of Bengal 1,460 

Brahmapootra Tibet, Assam Ditto 2,000 

Irawaddy. Tibet, Birman Empire Ditto 1.200 

Murray Soutli Australia Encounter Bay ... 1 ,000 

235. Continental rivers are those which are confined exclu- 
sively to the continents, and discharge themselves into com- 
pletely insulated lakes, or are lost in sands, deserts, or swamps. 
The principal continental rivers are stated in the following table : 

Eivers. Course. Termination. 

Volga European Russia Caspian. 

Kour Georgia Ditto. 

Terek Circassia Ditto. 

Ural .European and Asiatic Russia. Ditto. 

Amoo or Jihon (ancient Oxus). Turkestan Lake Aral. 

Sir or Sihoon Ditto Ditto. 

Helmund Afghanistan Lake Zurrah. 

Yarkand Central Asia Lake Lcpnor. 

Many streams in Central Asia 
terminate in insulated lakes, 
or are lost in desert sands. 



Questions.— 235. Continental rivers? Same the principal continental rivers, the coun- 
tries through whi<-h they flow, and their places of termination. 236. Upon what docs the 
magnitude of rivers depend ? The large rivers of South AnuricaV 



Eivers. Course. 
Jordan Palestine 



Termination. 
.Dead Sea. 



Streams north of the African 
Sahara lost in sands. 



Rio Grande Mexico 

Desaguadero Bolivia 

Humboldt Utah Territory 

Bear Ditto 



Lake Parras. 
. Lakes and swamps. 
. Lake. 
. Great Salt Lake. 



Many other streams in Utah 
Territory are lost in sands, 
marshes, or lakes. 

236. The magnitude of rivers depends upon the area of their 
basins, the rain-producing character of the climate, and the 
arrangement of the surrounding mountains with reference to 
the prevailing winds. Lieut. Maury thus accounts for the vast 
rivers of the South American continent : " The northeast and 
southeast trade-winds, as they come across the Atlantic, filled 
with moisture, go full charged into the interior, dropping it in 
showers as they go, until they reach-the snow-capped summits 
of the Andes, where the last drop, which that very low tem- 
rjerature can wring from them, is deposited to melt and feed 
the sources of the Amazon and the La Plata, with their trib- 
utaries." 

237. The proportional quantity of water discharged by some 
of the principal rivers has been estimated as follows : 



Thames 1 Don 



Volga 80 

Euphrates 60 

Indus 133 

Ganges 1 48 

Yang-tse-Kiang 258 

Amour : 160 

Lena ...125 



Obi 179 

Nile 250 

St. Lawrence 112 

Mississippi 338 

Plata 490 

Amazon 1 , 280 



Rhine 13 

Loire 10 

Po 

Elbe .... 8 

Vistula 12 

Danube G5 

Dnieper 36 

238. Many rivers are subject to periodical inundations. It is 
to the annual overflowings of the iSTile that Egypt owes her 
fertility. The rise commences about the 21st of June, attains 
its greatest height near the middle of September, and gradually 
diminishes to the time of the winter solstice. Both the Missis- 
sippi and the Missouri have annual floods during the spring 
months. Among the other streams subject to overflow are 
the Orinoco, Amazon, Euphrates, Tigris, etc. 




VIEW ON THE NILE. 

239. The following beautiful extract relates to the historic associations 
of rivers : "The rivers of the old world, while subordinate to those of the 
new in point of magnitude, have a historic and sacred interest in many 
instances wholly wanting to the latter. The Danube recalls the struggle 
of the ancient civilization with overwhelming barbaric invasions ; the Tiber 
revives the stoTy of Roman greatness ; the Nile associates itself with the 
colossal power of the Pharaohs; the Tigris and Euphrates are connected 



Questions.— 237. State the proportional quantity of water discharged by some of the prin- 
cipal rivers. 238. Inundations of rivers 1 Overflowings of the Nile 1 Of other rivers 1 
239. What is said < -f the rivers of the old world ? Illustrate. 



THE WATERS. 



■with the mighty dynasties of Assyria and Bahylon, the captivity of God's 
chosen people, and that momentous hour when the hand of retributive 
justice unfolded the doom of monarch and of nation at a profane festivity 
of the royal house ; while the Jordan is imperishably linked with far more 
stupendous transactions : the miracle which divided its waters at the in- 
gress of Israel into the land of promise ; and that voice from heaven which 
proclaimed the character of the Messiah at his baptism in the stream, 
placing his right to the universal homage of man, supported by the design 
of his mission, on the firm ground of his Divine nature : ' This is my be- 
loved Son, in whom I am well pleased.' " s 



LESSON VI. 



RIVER SYSTEMS OF THE WESTERN CONTINENT. 

240. In no portion of the -world are rivers found upon so 
magnificent a scale as on the continent of North and South 
America. The magnitude of these streams is owing to a variety 
of causes, some of which have been described ; as the situation 
and direction of the great mountain ranges, the extent of the 
river-basins, etc. : others will be explained in a subsequent 
part, which treats of wind, rain, etc. 

241. North American Rivers. — The continent of North 
America may, with reference to its drainage, be divided into 
four grand divisions : (l) The Atlantic slope, or that part which 
is drained by the rivers tributary to the Atlantic Ocean ; (2) 
the Valley of the Mississippi, lying between the Rocky and 
Alleghany mountains ; (3) the region to the west of the Rocky 
Mountains, the streams of which are tributary to the Pacific 
Ocean ; (4) the northern slope drained by streams tributary to 
Hudson Bay and the Arctic Ocean. 

242. The 3fississi2>pi is the largest of the North American 
rivers ; it waters the southern half of the great plain, and brings 
to the sea the drainage of upward of a million of square miles. 
It rises in the small lake of Itasca, at an elevation of only 1,490 
feet above the level of the sea, and flows in a southerly direction 
to its termination in the Gulf of Mexico, after a course of 2,400 
miles. The Mississippi is navigable for 2,000 miles to the Falls 
of St. Anthony, a distance of about 400 miles below its source. 




VIEW ON THE OHIO. 



Questions.— 240. Magnitude of the American rivers ? To what owing? 241. How may 
tlie continent of North America be divider] with reference to its drainage? First divi- 
sion ? Secon.l ? Third ? Fonrth 1 242. The Mississippi ? Its source, direction, and 
tcrmini.tion ? How f.ir navigable ? 248. The Missouri ? How far navigable ? 



* Rev. Thomas Milner. 



243. The Missouri has its origin in the Rocky Mountains, 
and runs for 2,500 miles in a southeasterly direction before 
it joins the Mississippi, making a total distance, from its source 
to its entrance into the Gulf of Mexico, of more than 4,000 
miles. It is navigable from the point where it unites with the 
Mississippi up to the base of the Rocky Mountains, where the 
Great Falls occur (in latitude 46° 50'). 

244. During the period of the annual floods, large tracts 
of the adjoining country are overflowed, and immense damage 
done to property. Artificial embankments, called levees, are 
constructed along the lower course of the Mississippi to prevent 
inundation ; but in seasons of high floods they are often broken 
through by the force of the waters, forming what are known as 
crevasses. About one fifth of the whole surface of the State 
of Louisiana is periodically overflowed. 

245. The Ohio is, next to the Missouri, the most important 
of the tributaries of the Mississippi ; it is formed by the junction 
of the Monongahela and the Alleghany rivers, which unite their 
waters at Pittsburg, where the river becomes navigable. The 
Ohio, about 950 miles in length, and from four hundred yards 
to upward of three quarters of a mile in breadth, flows through 
one of the most fertile portions of the Mississippi Valley. It 
has no fall except a rocky rapid of 22J feet descent at Louis- 
ville, around which a canal lias been constructed sufficiently 
capacious to admit steamboats, though not of the largest class. 

246. Among the other principal streams in the Valley of the 
Mississippi are the following : the St. Peters, Iowa, Des Moines, 
St. Croix, Wisconsin, and Illinois rivers, tributaries to the 
Mississippi above, and the Ohio, Arkansas, and Red rivers 
below, the junction of the Missouri ; the Yellow Stone, Platte, 
Kansas, and Osage rivers, tributaries to the Missouri ; and the 
Scioto, Miami, Wabash, Kanawha, Licking, Kentucky, Green, 
Cumberland, and Tennessee rivers, tributaries to the Ohio. 

247. The St. Zmorence is the second great river of the 
North American continent, and by far the largest of the 
streams draining the Atlantic slope. Its channel from Lake 
Ontario to the sea is about 700 miles long, but (including the 
great chain of the lakes from which it derives its waters) the 

whole length, from the mouth of the St. Law- 
rence to the western extremity of Lake Superior, 
is 1,880 miles. Above Montreal, rapids occur 
which interrupt its navigation. During four 
months of the year the navigation is completely 
stopped by the ice. 

248. Of the other streams draining the Atlan- 
tic slope, the principal are the Connecticut (400 
miles), the Hudson (325 miles), the Delaware 
(300 miles), the Susquehanna (450 miles), the 
Potomac (400 miles), the James (450 miles), the 
Roanoke (350 miles), the Pedse (350 miles), the 
Santec (350 miles), the Savannah (400 miles), 
and the Altamaha (400 miles), — all of which flow 
into the Atlantic Ocean. The Appalacbicola (600 
miles) and the Mobile, farther to the westward, 

Questions. — 241. Floods? Artificial embankments? 24S. The Obio? lis length, etc. ? 
Falls? 246. Tributaries to the Mississippi above the junction cf the Missouri? Below 
the junction of the Mis-onri? Tributaries to the Missouri ? To [ho Ohio? 24". The St. 
Lawrence? Its length from Lake Ontario? Its whole length, including the lakes? 
Rapids? Ice? 248 Oilier streams draining the Atlantic slope? Their navigability? Tho 
Hudson, how far navigable f ir lha largest ships ? For steamers? 



RIVER SYSTEMS OF THE WESTERN CONTINENT. 



S3 



flow into the Gulf of Mexico. Most of these rivers are naviga- 
ble for a considerable distance inland, and the Hudson (at the 
mouth of which stands the city of New York) can be ascended 
by the largest merchant ships 120 miles, and steamers nearly 
160 miles. 

249. The principal rivers draining the region to the west 
of the Rocky Mountains — forming the third division — are the 
Eraser (600 miles), Oregon or Columbus (750 miles), Sacra- 
mento (420 miles), and the Colorado (840 miles). Columbia, 
the most considerable of these, receives several important tribu- 
taries, the largest of which is the Lewis. The river Sacramento 
waters the northern half of the valley lying between the Sierra 
Nevada and the coast range of California, and forms at its 
mouth the harbor of San Francisco : immediately above this 
outlet it is joined by the San Joaquin, which drains the south- 
ern half of the valley, and carries off the waters of Lake Tulare. 
The streams tributary to the Sacramento and San Joaquin, 
which flow in from the west, drain the gold regions of Cali- 
fornia. 

250. Of the streams draining the northern slope of North 
America two divisions may be made, — one embracing the Nel- 
son, Churchill, and other rivers flowing into Hudson Bay ; and 
the other, the Mackenzie, Coppermine, and other streams flow- 
ing into the Arctic Ocean. The most considerable of these 
streams is the Mackenzie, which issues from the western ex- 
tremity of the Great Slave Lake. During the summer it pours 
a vast flood of waters into the sea, but is obstructed by ice 
during nine months of the year. 

251. The Rio del Norte is a considerable stream of 1,400 
miles in length, which rises in the southern part of the Rocky 
Mountains and runs southwesterly into the Gulf of Mexico. To 
the south of this stream are few rivers of any considerable 
length. The San Juan, in Central America, possesses consid- 
erable interest from its having aflbrded, since the discovery of 
gold in California, the principal channel of communication be- 



tween the opposite shores of the Atlantic and Pacific oceans. 
It has its origin in the lake of Nicaragua, on the southern por- 
tion of the plateau of Guatemala, and after a course of 120 
miles empties itself into the Caribbean Sea. 




FALLS OF THE MADEIRA. 



Questions. — 249. The principal rivers draining the third division ? The Columbia ? 
Sacramento? San Joaquin ? Gold regions, how drained ? 250. What two divisions of the 
streams draining: the northern slope ? The Mackenzie ? 251. The Eio del Norte? San 
Jnan? 252. The three prinripal rivers of South America? 203. The Orinoco? Cas'quiare? 
254. The principal tributaries of the Orinoco? Its navigability ? 253. The Amazon? 



LESSON VII. 

KIVER SYSTEMS OF THE WESTERN CONTINENT— (continued). 

252. South American Rivers. — The three principal rivers 
of South America are the Orinoco, the Amazon, and the La 
Plata, which drain respectively the northern, middle, and south- 
ern portions of the great plain. 

253. The Orinoco (about 1,200 miles long) rises in the mount- 
ains of Guiana. About 130 miles below its source it sends off 
to the southward a branch called the Casiquiare (200 miles in 
length), which joins the river Negro, a tributary of the Amazon, 
and thus effects a natural communication (navigable for boats) 
between the basins of these two great rivers. 

254. The principal tributaries of the Orinoco are the Guav- 
iare, Meta, and Apure (rising in the Andes), on its left bank ; 
the Ventuari, Caura, and Caroni, on the right. Below the 
village of Angostura, 280 miles from the mouth of the Orinoco, 
no impediments to its navigation occur : above this its course 
is occasionally interrupted by rapids, but in general it presents 
a deep and navigable channel nearly to its source. 

255. The Amazon (called the Maranon in the upper portion 
of its course) rises in the small lake of Lauriococha, upon the 
table-land of Pasco, amid the highest parts of the Peruvian 
Andes. Thence it flows in a northerly course until it leaves 
the mountains, and afterward crosses the great plain in an 
easterly direction to the Atlantic Ocean. The whole length 
of the Amazon is a little short of 3,900 miles. 

256. The tributaries of the Amazon are numerous and on a 
grand scale, some of them being equal to the largest 
streams of the Old World. The principal are the 

=_-£-- Napo, Putumayo or lea, Japura, and Negro, on the 
left bank ; the Huallaja, Ucayali, Javary, Jutay, Jura 
or Hyaruha, Teffe, Purus, Madeira, Tapajos, Xingu or 
Chingua, and Tocantins, upon the right. The Ma- 
deira has a course of more than 2,000 miles before it 
joins the Amazon. 

257. At the distance of 700 miles below its source 
the Amazon has a width of 800 yards, and during the 
last 450 miles of its course it is nowhere less than four 
miles in width, and at its mouth the channel is fifty 
miles across. A recent exploration of this river* has 
proved that it is navigable for vessels of the largest 
class, during a considerable part of the year, from its 
mouth to the very foot of the Andes, a distance of 
about 3,500 miles. So great is the amount of water 
which it brings down that its freshness is ]3ercep- 
tible at a distance of more than 500 miles from 
the coast. 

Questions. — Its course ? Length ? 256. What is said of the tributaries of the Amazon ? 
The principal tributaries on the left bank ? Upon the right bank ? The Madeira? 257. 
Width of the Amazon ? How far navigable ? Illustrate the amount of water it brings down. 



* Ey L'eut. Herndon. 



34 



THE WATERS. 



258. The Bio de la Plata is a broad fresh-water estuary, 
which receives the waters of the Parana and Uruguay. The 
Parana has its rise in the mountains of Brazil, and, reckoning 
from its most distant source to the mouth of the Rio de la Plata, 
is 2,350 miles in length. About 760 miles above the sea it re- 
ceives the Paraguay, which has a course of about 1,260 miles. 
The Uruguay (1,000 miles long) flows nearly parallel to the 
lower course of the Parana. Both the Parana and Paraguay 
are navigable for vessels of considerable draft to a distance of 
nearly 1,000 miles. 

259. Among the other principal rivers of South America are 
the Magdalena (860 miles), which flows into the Caribbean 
Sea, and the Atrato (300 miles), into the Gulf of Darien. The 
Essequibo, Demerara, Berbice, Corentyn, Surinam, Maroni, 
and Oyapok flow into the Atlantic to the eastward of the mouth 
of the Orinoco. To the east and south of the Amazon are the 
Maranhao, Parnahiba, St. Francisco (1,500 miles), and many 
others belonging to the Atlantic coast. The Colorado (600 
miles) and the Negro (800 miles) flow into the Atlantic south- 
west of the Rio de la Plata. 

260. The rivers on the western coast of South America are 
very short ; among the longest are the Biobi'o, in Chile, about 
150 miles, and a few streams of nearly equal length to the 
northward of the Gulf of Guayaquil. 



LESSON VIII. 



RIVER SYSTEMS OF THE EASTERN CONTINENT. 

261. European Rivers. — Europe is divided into two prin- 
cipal river systems, — one embracing those streams which have 
a southerly direction, and flow into the Mediterranean, Caspian, 
and Black seas ; the other comprising those which have a north- 
erly course, and terminate in the North, Baltic, and White seas, 
and the Arctic Ocean. 

262. In the west, these two systems are for the most part 
divided by the Alps and German mountains ; but in the eastern 
part of Europe the division of the waters is merely a ridge of 
the great plain slightly elevated above,the general level. This 
watershed begins on the northern declivity of the Carpathian 
Mountains, about the 23d meridian, in a low range of hills run- 
ning between the sources of the Dnieper and the tributaries 
of the Vistula, from whence it winds in a tortuous course 
along the plain to the Valdai table-land, which is its highest 
point, 1,200 feet above the sea. It then declines northward 
toward the Onega, about the 60th parallel, and lastly turns in 
a very serpentine line to the Ural Mountains, near the 62d de- 
gree of north latitude. 

263. The Volga, which is the largest river of Europe, rises 
in the plateau of Valdai, at the height of 1,100 feet above the 
sea; its entire course is 2,200 miles in length, and the area of 
its basin about 520,000 square miles, or nearly one seventh 

Questions.— 258. The Rio de la Plata? The Parana? Paraguay? Uruguay? How far 
are the Parana and Paraguay navigable ? 2E9. Other principal rivers of South America ? 
Rivers flowing into the Atlantic to the east of the mouth of the Orinoco ? To the east and 
south of the Amazon ? To the souih of the Rio do la Plata ? 260. The rivers of the west- 
ern coast? Bi'.bio? 261. Into what two river systems is Europe divided? 262. Division 
of the two systems in the western part ? 



of the whole surface of the continent. The Volga is navi- 
gable through nearly its whole length, and has considerable 
depth. During the greater part of winter it is frozen over, but 
at other times is the highway of a most extensive traffic. 

264. The Danube, 1,630 miles, is the second of the rivers 
of Europe, both in length of course and in the area of its basin, 
which is 310,000 square miles in extent. It rises in the Black 
Forest, to the north of Switzerland, at a height of 2,200 feet 
above the level of the sea, and flows in an easterly direction 
across the plateau of Bavaria, through Austria, the plain of 
Hungary, and between Bulgaria and Wallachia, until it enters 
the Black Sea. 

265. The Danube is navigable from its mouth up to Ulm 
(10° east longitude), or throughout nearly the whole length 
of its course, excepting between the towns of Moldova and 
Gladova, where it passes, for a space of 60 miles, through a 
succession of rapids and shallows. The principal tributaries are 
the Inn, the Drave, the Save, and the Morava, on the south (or 
right-hand) bank ; and the March, the Theiss, the Aluta", and 
the Pruth, on the north side. All of these are rivers of con- 
siderable magnitude. 

266. The other principal streams which flow into the Black 
Sea are the Dniester (1,200 miles), the Dnieper (1,200 miles), 
and the Don (1,100 miles). The Dnieper is navigable from 
Smolensk to the sea, excepting for a distance of about 150 
miles below Kiev, within which its navigation is impeded by 
rocks and cataracts. 

267. The Rhine rises in the Alps, at an elevation of 6,580 
feet, and flows in the upper portion of its course through Lake 
Constance. It has a length of 760 miles, and its basin is 70,000 




square miles in area : at Basle (where it is 765 feet above the 
level of the sea) its breadth is 800 feet, at Mentz about 1,700, 
and at Cologne 1,400. It is navigable for boats as high up as 
the Falls of Schaffhausen, a short distance below Lake Con- 
stance, and for vessels of some magnitude as high as Stras- 
burg. The current is generally rapid, flowing at the rate of 
four or five miles an hour. Its principal affluents are the 



Questions— In the eastern part? Describe the course of the watershed through 
eastern Europe. 2C3. Give particulars of the Volga. How far navigable ? 264. Givo 
particulars of the Danube. Its source, direction, and termination ? 265. Navigation 
of the Danube? Tributaries? 266. Other streams which flow into the Black Sea? 
The Dnieper ? 267. The Rhine ? Its leng'h, extent of its basio, etc. ? Its principal 
affluents? 



RIVER SYSTEMS OF THE EASTERN CONTINENT. 



35 



Neckar and Mayne on the right bank, and the Aar and Moselle 
on the left. 

268. Of the other considerable rivers flowing into the At- 
lantic Ocean are — the Elbe (690 miles) and the Weser (380 
miles) to the north, and the Meuse (550 miles), Seine (430 
miles), Loire (570 miles), and Garonne (350 miles), to the 
south. Spain is watered by numerous rivers, as the Minho 
(200 miles), the Douro (460 miles), the Tagus (510 miles), and 
the Guadiana (450 miles) ; they are all navigable in the lower 
parts of their courses. The Guadalquiver (290 miles) is navi- 
gable for large vessels up to Seville. 

269. The rivers -which flow into the Mediterranean have 
generally short courses, owing to the nearness of the mountains 
on the north. The Ebro (420 miles) flows from the eastern 
side of the Spanish table-land. The Rhone (490 miles) rises in 
the highest region of the Alps, and passing in its course 
through Lake Geneva, below which it is navigable, falls into 
the Gulf of Lyons. The Arno (150 miles) and the Tiber (210 
miles) both water the western side of the Italian peninsula; 
the Po (450 miles) and the Adige (250 miles) flow through the 
plain of Lombardy, and enter the Adriatic Sea near its northern 
extremity. 

270. Of the rivers flowing into the Baltic Sea are — the Duna 
(450 miles), the Niemen (400 miles), the Vistula (630 miles), 
and the Oder (550 miles). The Duna, the Vistula, and the 
Oder are navigable for the greater part of their courses. The 
Neva, which flows into the head of the Gulf of Finland, though 
only 46 miles in length, is of considerable importance, and has 
a vast volume of water, since it is the outlet of the great lakes 
of Ladoga and Onega: it has a mean breadth of 1,500 feet 
and a depth of 50 feet, but is frozen over for five months of 
the year. 

271. The White Sea and Arctic Ocean receive several im- 
portant streams, among which are the Dwina (760 miles), the 
Mezeu (480 miles), and the Petchora (500 miles). 



LESSON IX. 



PIVEE SYSTEMS OF THE EASTEEN CONTINENT— (continued). 

272. Asiatic Rivers. — The rivers of Asia may, like those 
of Europe, be divided into two principal classes, separated by 
the mountains and table-lands which extend east and west 
through the interior. The northern division embraces the 
rivers which flow into the Arctic Ocean, and those (in the 
west) which terminate in inland seas or lakes unconnected with 
the ocean. The other and more numerous class includes the 
streams which have their origin in the mountains of the in- 
terior, and flow either southerly into the Indian Ocean, or east- 
wardly into the Pacific. 

273. The Obi, which flows into the Arctic Ocean, is 2,530 
miles in length; its river-basin is 1,250,000 square miles in 
extent, being probably the largest basin of any river in the 



'iorm.— 268. Other considerable rivers flowing into the Atlantic Ocean? Eivers of 
Sl'iiu? 269. What is said of the rivers flowing into the Mediterranean 1 The Ebro? 
ICnohe? Other streams ? 270. The principal rivers flowing into the Baltic Sea? Which 
are navigable? The Neva? 271. Streams flowing into the White Sea and Arctic Ocean? 
273, How may the rivers of Asia be divided? The northern division ? The other class ? 
27<J. The Obi? Other considerable rivers of northern Asia? 



Eastern hemisphere. Of the other considerable rivers in the 
north of Asia are the Yenesei (2,900 miles) and the Lena 
(2,400 miles). The Obi, Yenesei, and Lena all rise in the 
mountains of the Altai system, and flow through the Siberian 
plain. Owing to the severity of the climate their waters are 
frozen during a great part of the year, and they are hence of 
little use for the purposes of navigation. 

274. The Ganges (1,460 miles) and the Indus (1 ,700 miles), 
two of the most important rivers of Asia, both water the 
northern portion of Hindoostan. The Ganges, 'whose basin 
extends from east to west to the south of the Himalaya Mount- 
ains, flows in an easterly direction into the head of the Bay of 
Bengal. At its mouth it divides into numerous arms, which 
inclose a delta of immense extent (page 30) : ■ its most western 
arm, called the Hoogly, upon which Calcutta is built, is the 
only one that is usually navigated. The Ganges is remarkable 
for the great extent of its fall :■ it is ascended by steamers as 
high as Allahabad, more than 800 miles from its mouth. 

275. The Indus rises on the plateau of Tibet, to the north- 
ward of the Himalaya Mountains, at an elevation of more than 
15,000 feet, and flows into the Arabian Sea. About 470 miles 
above its mouth the Indus receives on its left bank the river 
Chenaub, which collects the waters of the five streams of the 
Jeloam, the Chenaub, the Ravee, the Bayas, and the Sutlej. 
The district watered by these five rivers is called the jPunjaub* 
All the chief tributaries of the rivers, as well as the main 
stream, are navigable through nearly their entire length ; 
steamboats of considerable size can ascend to more than 500 
miles distance from the sea, and smaller vessels to 1,000. 

276. Of the other principal rivers belonging to the basin of 
the Indian Ocean are the Saleun and the Irawaddy (1,2°0 
miles), both flowing into the Gulf of Martaban ; the Brahma- 
pootra, the Godavery, the Krishna, and the Cauvery, into the 
Bay of Bengal ; the Nerbudda into the Gulf of Cambay ; and 
the united Euphrates (1,600 miles) and Tigris (980 miles) into 
the Persian Gulf. 




EIVER TIGRIS, AT BAGDAD. 

277. The seas to the east of Asia receive several large rivers, 
among which are the Amour (2,300 miles), which flows into 
the Gulf of Tartary; the Hoang-Ho (2,600 miles), and the 
Yang-tse-Kiang (3,200 miles), both flowing into the Yellow 
Sea; and the Cambodia (2,000 miles), into the Gulf of Siam. 

Questions.— What further is said of the Obi. Yenesei, and Lena ? 274. The Ganges and 
Indus? Give particulars of the Ganges. 27D. The ln:lus. Its tributaries? How far 
navigable ? 276. Name the principal rivers belonging to tho basin of the Indian Ocean. 
277. Those flowing into the eastern seas. 



Properly, Peenj-ab, or five rivers. 



36 



THE WATERS. 



278. The drainage of a large part of the Asiatic continent — 
probably not less than four and a half millions of square miles — ■ 
is unconnected with any of the surrounding oceans, but is re- 
ceived into inland seas or lakes, of which the Caspian and Aral 
possess the most extended basins. The principal continental 
rivers of Asia are the Kour (550 miles), the Amoo or Jihon 
(1,300 miles), and the Sihoon (1,150 miles), flowing into the' 
Sea of Aral. , The Tarim or Erghue (900 miles) flows into the 
Lake of Lop; in the center of the continent. The Helmund 
(600 miles), which rises in the plateau of Afghanistan, falls 
into Lake Zurrah ; and the Jordan, in Palestine, into the 
Dead Sea. 

2.79. African Rivers. — The Nile is the most considerable 
river of Africa: it carries off the waters from the northern and 
western sides of the plateau and mountains of Abyssinia, and 
discharges itself into the Mediterranean. The Nile is formed 
by the junction (in latitude 15° 40' north) of two streams, — the 
Bahr-el-Azrek (Blue River), and the Bahr-el-Abiad (or White 
River) : the latter is generally admitted to constitute the main 
channel of the river. The wonderful secret of the source of 
the Nile, for centuries a geographical mystery, has lately been 
unraveled by the intrepid and successful travelers, Speke, Bur- 
ton, and Grant. It rises in an extensive lake called Victoria 
Nyanza, lying beneath the equator. A short distance of the 
course of the river remains unexplored ; but its origin is no 
longer doubtful. 

280. Though the Nile has so great a length of course — prob- 
ably not much short of 3,500 miles — its basin is of very limited 
extent. For a distance of 1,400 miles above its mouth it re- 
ceives no tributary. Through the middle and lower portion of 
its course, the Nile flows in a narrow valley inclosed on either 
side by steep rocks ; the width of this valley varies from one to 
two miles in Nubia and Upper Egypt to as many as ten or 
twelve miles lower down the stream. 

281. The Niger (or Quorra) is the largest of the African 
rivers which flows into the Atlantic Ocean. It rises in the 
mountains of Soudan, where the main tributary is known as the 
Joliba, pursues a northeasterly course to the neighborhood of 
Timbuctoo, thence a southeasterly course, passing through a 
wide opening of the Kong Mountains, and enters the eastern 
extremity of the Gulf of Guinea by several mouths. The 
length of the Niger is perhaps about 2,300 miles; above the 
place of its passage through the Kong Mountains it receives 
the waters of the Chadda, a broad and deep tributary. The 
Niger has been ascended by a steamboat to more than two 
hundred miles above the junction of the Chadda, but the ex- 
treme unhealthiness of the climate, in the district through 
which its lower course lies, has contributed to the failure of 
many attempts made to explore this part of Afnca, and to 
establish commercial relations with the inhabitants. 

282. Besides the Niger, the principal rivers upon the west 
coasts of Africa are the Senegal, the Gambia, the Rio Grande, 
the Rokelle, the Volta, the Zaire or Congo, the Coanza, and the 

Questions.— 278. Extent of the surface drained into the Inland seas? Principal conti- 
nental rivers of Asia ? Into what seas or lakes do they respectively flow ? 2T9. AVhat is 
said of the Nile? How formed ? Source of the Nile ? In what does it rise? Exploration 
of the river? 2S0. Length ? Ba-in ? Widlh of the valley in different parts? 281. The 
Niger? Its source, direction, and termination? Length ? How far ascended hy a 
steamboat? The climate of the district in which its lower course lies? 282. Other prin- 
cipal rivers upon the west coasts of Africa ? 



Gariep or Orange. Both the Senegal (900 miles) and the 
Gambia (650 miles) are navigable rivers ; they flow in a west- 
erly direction, and draw their waters from the same mountain 
ranges in which are the sources of the Niger. The Gariep or 
Orange River, in the southern part of Africa, has a length 
of upward of 1,000 miles. The principal river upon the 
eastern side of Africa is the Zambesi, Avhich brings down a 
great volume of water, and is said to be navigable for boats 
through a distance of more than 900 miles. The Lufiji, .Tuba, 
and many other rivers of the eastern coast, have not been ex- 
plored, and are but little known. 



LESSON X. 



LAKES. 

283. Fresh-water lakes occur in the greatest numbers, and 
upon the largest scale, in the northern regions of the globe. 
Nearly all the lakes of any considerable extent in North Amer- 
ica are situated north of the 40th parallel, while in Europe and 
Asia, the regions peculiarly characterized by fresh-water col- 
lections are, for the most part, north of the 50th parallel. Salt- 
water lakes have a more southerly distribution, and are very 
abundant in eastern Europe, and central and southern Asia. 

284. Lakes may be divided into four classes, according to 
certain physical peculiarities. The first class includes those 
which have no outlet, and do not receive any running water. 
Lake Albano, near Rome, is an example. Many of these lakes 
are situated in elevated districts, and are generally small ; it has 
been supposed that they are the craters of extinct volcanoes, 
and are supplied by springs. 

285. The second class comprises those which receive water, 
but have no apparent outlets. The Caspian Sea and Lake Aral 
belong to this division. The Caspian is about 600 miles long ; 
its extreme breadth is 300 miles, though its average breadth is 
not more than 100 miles. This most remarkable lake receives 
the waters of the Volga, a river which has a course of 2,200 
miles, and brings down more than 518,000,000 cubic feet of 
water every hour. The Ural and many other streams of con- 
siderable magnitude are also received by the Caspian ; but its 
level is not changed, though it has no perceptible outlet by 
which to discharge the water it receives. 

286. Lake Aral presents the same phenomenon, and, though 
not to be compared in extent to the Caspian, receives two large 
rivers, the Sihoon and Amoo or Jihon. The difficulty in ex- 
plaining the nature of these lakes is to account for the con- 
stancy of their level, which might be expected to rise consid- 
erably, as they are daily receiving so large a body of water. 
The opinion was entertained that they are connected by some 
internal channel with the sea, and it was supported by the fact 
that the water of both the Caspian and Lake Aral is salt, and 

Questions.— The Senegal and the Gambia? The Gariep? The principal river upon 
the eastern side ? Other rivers? 283. Where are fresh-water lakes most abundant? In 
North America? In Europe and Asia ? Salt-water lakes? 284. Into how many cla-ses 
may lakes he divided? First class? Example. Situation of these lakes, etc. ? 285. Sie- 
ondchiss? Examples. The Caspian? What waters are tr.bulary to it? 286. Lake Arnl ? 
Opinion formerly enterlained ? How supporled ? How is this hypothesis disproved? 
How may the constant level be accounted for? What other lakes belong to this class? 



LAKES. 



37 



contains marine productions ; but it has been ascertained that 
the Caspian is not less than 84 feet below the level of the Black 
Sea, thus completely disproving the hypothesis that they have 
a connection. It is thought that the phenomena referred to 
may be accounted for by evaporation and filtration. Besides 
the Caspian Sea and Lake Aral, there are numerous other 
bodies of water of this class, the receptacles of the continental 
rivers. (See table of Continental Rivers, page 31.) 

287. A third class comprehends all those lakes which receive 
no streams, but give birth to some. Many of these lakes occupy 
very elevated situations, and are the sources of some of the 
largest rivers. They are no doubt supplied by springs, the 
waters of which rise in their reservoirs until its level is suffi- 
ciently high to admit a discharge. The lake in Monte Rotondo, 
in Corsica, is one of this class, and is situated 0,000 feet above 
the level of the sea. 

288. The fourth class includes all those lakes which both 
receive and discharge water, being by far the most numerous 
division. They commonly receive the waters of many rivers, 
and have but one outlet. The origin of such rivers is easily 
explained. Should a hollow present itself in the course of a 
river, it is evident that it must be filled to the level of some 
part of its banks before the river can proceed, and this would 
produce a lake. But it may happen that there is a general de- 
clivity from various parts of a district toward some central 
valley, and then the waters of a number of rivers may be 
brought into it, while at the same time the continuation gives 
but one course by which the waters can be discharged. A 
description of some of the largest lakes of this class will be 
given in the next lesson. 

289. Most lakes occur at varying elevations above the level 
of the sea, while some are much below it. The highest known 
lake in the world is Sir-i-kol, in Asia. It is the source of the 



234 feet. The Caspian Sea, Lake of Tiberias, and the Dead 
Sea are each below the sea-level, — the first 84 feet, the second 
600 feet, and the third 1,317 feet.* 



LESSON XI 




LAKE TITICACA. 



Amoo River, and is 15,630 feet above the level of the ocean. 
Lake Titicaca, in Bolivia, has an elevation of 12,785 feet; 
Tzana or Dembea, in Abyssinia, 6,076 feet; Lake Baikal, in 
Asia, 1,793 feet; Constance, 1,299 feet; Geneva, 1,229 feet; 
Great Salt Lake, in Utah Territory, 4,200 feet ; Superior, 623 
feet ; Huron and Michigan, 591 feet ; Erie, 565 feet ; Ontario, 



Questions.— 2S7. Third class 7 What is said of many of the lakes or this class ? ITow 
supplied? Monte Eotondo 1 288. Fourth class ? How is the origin of such lakes ex- 
plained ?' 289. Varying elevations and depressions of lakes? Highest known lake, its 
elevation, etc. ? Give the elf vations of the other lakes mentioned. State the depressions 
of the Caspian, Lake of Tiberias, and the Dead Sea. 2S0. Which are the largest lakes in 
North America, and how drained ? 



LAKES — (continued). 

290. Nokth American Lakes. — The largest lakes in North 
America are Superior, Huron, Michigan, Erie, and Ontario, 
which are connected with the sea by the channel of the river 
St. Lawrence ; Winnipeg, which is drained by the river Nelson 
into the Hudson Bay, and the Athabasca, Great Slave, and 
Great Bear, which empty their waters into streams tributary 
to the Arctic Ocean. 

291. Lake Superior is the largest fresh- water formation on 
the globe, computed to have an area of 40,000 square miles ; 
length 420 miles ; extreme breadth, 165 ; height above the 
level of the Atlantic, 623 feet ; greatest depth, 1,200 feet. 
There is reason to believe, from the appearance of the shores, 
that the waters of this, as well as the other Canadian lakes, 
formerly occupied a much higher level than they reach at pres- 
ent. The amount of water carried off by its outlet, the river 
of St. Mary, is much less than that received by its tributaries, 
from which circumstance it is inferred that the evaporation 
from its surface must be very great. 

292. Lake Huron, remarkable for its brilliant transparency, 
has an area of 25,000 square miles. It is about 240 miles in 
length, from 180 to 220 in breadth, and is 591 feet above the 
level of the sea. The outline of this lake is very irregular, and 
its shores are described as consisting of clay cliffs, rolled stones, 

abrupt rocks, and wooded steeps. 

The greatest depth of Lake Huron 

is found to be nowhere more than 

450 feet. Lake Michigan, which 

ja» lies wholly within the United 

« States, is connected with Lake 

fftS» ' 

PHI Huron by means of the navigable 

||1& channel Mackinaw. It is about 
IHE 300 miles Ions?, and has an area 
gjjf " of about 25,000 square miles. 
W" 293. Lake Erie has an area . 
of about 11,000 square miles; its 
surface is 565 feet above the sea. 
This lake is said to be the only 
one in the whole Canadian chain in which there is any percep- 
tible current, a circumstance which is supposed to be attributable 
to its comparative shallowness, its average depth being not more 
than 60 or 80 feet. The current of Lake Erie, which runs al- 
ways in one direction, combined with the great prevalence 
of westerly winds, and the occurrence of sunken reefs and 



jjjjjjjjjp 



Questions.-'m. Give particulars of Lako Superior. Change of level? 292. Give 
particulars of Lake Huron. Lake Michigan. 293. Lake Erie. What is said of its cur- 
rent 1 Its navigability ? . 

* According to the measurement made by Lieutenant Lynch, in 1"4S, the exact depres- 
sion of the Dead Sea below the Mediterranean was found lo be 1.S16.T feet. 



38 



THE WATERS. 



rocky banks, form serious obstacles to the safe and easy naviga- 
tion of this lake. The shallowness of the water of Lake Erie 
likewise causes it to be more readily and more permanently 
affected by frost, so that its navigation is usually obstructed by 
ice for some weeks every winter, while that of the other lakes 
continues open and unimpeded. 

294. Lake Ontario has a computed area of 10,000 square 
miles, 234 feet above the sea-level, and 331 feet beloAV the level 
of Lake Erie. Its depth is said to be very great, and it is 
navigable throughout its whole extent for the largest ships. Its 
outlet is a spacious channel studded with islands, collectively 
denominated the Thousand Isles, but no less than 1,692 have 
been actually counted. 

295. Lake Gharnplain (about 500 square miles) belongs to 
the same basin as the great lakes above described, and is con- 
nected with the St. Lawrence by the river Richelieu. Lake 
George, noted for its picturesque scenery, and for the trans- 
parency of its waters, is situated west of the southern extremity 




tct-uxa.™- 



" — " *£&£!& 

LAKE GEORGE. 

of Lake Champlain, with which it is connected by a short stream. 
It is about 30 miles long, and from one to two miles broad. 

296. The Great Salt Lake (about 2,600 square miles), sit- 
uated in the great basin between the Rocky Mountains and the 
Sierra Nevada (ill), is about 70 miles in length, from 30 to 35 
miles in breadth, and is about 4,200 feet above the level of the 
sea. Its waters are saturated with common salt, and when the 
lake is low, considerable quantities of this substance are precip- 
itated to the bottom of the lake, or, rather, are there crystal- 
lized. No living animal can exist in this lake. It receives the 
waters of the Bear, Weber, and other rivers, but, like other 
lakes in this region, has no connection with the ocean. 

297. Upon the Mexican plateau is the large lake of Ghapala 
(about 650 square miles), which is discharged into the Pacific 
by the river Santiago. Lake Nicaragua (about 3,500 square 
miles), in Central America, lies at an elevation of about 128 feet 
above the sea. The distance between its western shore and the 



Question*.— 294. Give particulars of Lake Ontario. The Thousand Isles. 295. Lake 
Champlain. Lake George. 296. GreatSalt Lake. What are its waters ? 297. Give particu- 
lars of Lake Chapala. Lake Nicaragua. 293. What is said of South America? Lake Titi- 
caca? 299. Lake Maracaybo ? Other lakes? 800. How many lake-regions are there in 
Europe, and where are they respectively situated ? How are the lakes of each division 
characterized ? 801. What is the area of Lake Ladoga ? Of Onega ? 



coast of the Pacific is only eleven miles; it is drained by the 
San Juan, which flows into the Caribbean Sea. 

298. South American Lakes. — South America has few 
lakes of any great extent. The largest is Lake Titicaca (about 
3,800 square miles), situated on a plateau of that name, at an 
elevation of 12,785 feet, and surrounded by some of the highest 
summits of the Andes. The water of Lake Titicaca is fresh ; a 
river called the Desaguadero, which leaves its southern ex- 
tremity, flows into the smaller lake (or marsh) of Aullagas, or 
Pros, which lies at 490 feet lower level, and the water of which 
is salt. 

299. Lake Maracaybo (5,000 square miles), near the coast 
of the Caribbean Sea, is connected by a narrow strait with the 
Gulf of Maracaybo, and has brackish water. The Lake dos 
l\itos and Lake Mirini are on the southeast coast of Brazil. 



LESSON XII, 



LAKES — (continued). 

300. European Lakes. — There are two principal lake-re- 
gions in Europe, one lying around the Baltic, and situated 
within its basin ; and the other embracing the Alpine system 
of mountains. The lakes situated in the former of these regions 
possess, in general, greater magnitude, while the latter are dis- 
tinguished by their great elevation above the sea, and by the 
grandeur of the scenery among which they lie. 

301. The following tables give the dimensions of the prin- 
cipal European lakes, together with their elevation and greatest 
depth, where these particulars have been ascertained. 

Lakes Situated round the Baltic. 



Depth. 



In Russia Ladoga 

Onega 

Ilmen 

Peipous or Tckoudskoe 

Pskov 

Bieloe 

Saima 

Enara° 

In Sweden Wener 2,136 144 288 

Wetter 840 288 "432 

Maelar 







sq. miles. 


Height. 


6,330 




3,280 




390 




1,250 




280 




420 




2,000 




1,200 




2,136 


144 


840 


288 


760 






Lakes Belonging to the Alpine System. 



In Switzerland. . Geneva 

Neufchatel 

Luzerne 

Zurich 

Constance or Boden See 
In Hungary Neusiedler See 

Balaton or Platten See. . 
In Italy Lago Maggiore 

Como 

Garda 







sq. miles. 


Height. 


240 


1,230 


115 


1.437 


99 


1,430 


76 


1.332 


228 


1,299 


150 


350 


250 


918 


152 


678 


66 


684 


183 


320 



Depth. 



1,012 

426 

GOO 

600 

964 

13 

36 

2,622 

600 



Questions.— Of other lakes in Russia ? Give particulars of Lake Wcner. Of other lakes 
in Sweden. Of Geneva. Of other lakes in Switerland. Of Luke Maggiore. Of other 
lakes in Italy. 

* The waters of Lake Enara, however, communicate with the Arctic Ocean, not with 
the Baltic. 



THE OCEAN". 



39 



302. Lakes are very numerous in Scotland, especially in the 
middle and northern parts. They are mostly long and narrow 
bodies of water, occupying the deep hollows within the elevated 
mountain valleys. The largest lake in Scotland, and also in 
Great Britain, is Loch Lomond (45 square miles), which is 24 
miles in length, and 7 miles in its greatest breadth. 

303. Of the lakes in Ireland the largest is Lough JVeagh (150 
square miles), situated in the north of Ireland, and the Lakes 




LAKE KILI.ARNEY. 



of JZillarney (three in number), noted for their beautiful sce- 
nery, in the south. 

304. Asiatic Lakes. — The largest fresh-water lake in Asia is 
Lake Baikal, situated among the northern offsets of the Altai 
mountain-system: it has an area of about 15,000 square miles, 
and lies at an elevation of 1,793 feet above. the level of the sea. 
Its water is fresh, and abounds in fish. It is annually frozen 
over for a period of five or six months, and may be traversed 
on sledges. 

305. Among the smaller lakes of Asia are Balkash, Upsa-nor, 
Zaizang, Issi Kol, Bosteng, Lop, Koko'-nor, Bouka-nor, and 
Tengri-nor — all on or adjacent to the high plateaus in the inte- 
rior of the continent ; Tung-ting and Poyang, in China ; Zur- 
rah and Bakhtegan (both salt), on the plateau of Afghanistan 
and Persia ; Ooroomiah, Van, and Goukcka (the two former of 
which are salt), on the Armenian table-land ; the salt lake of 
Koch-hissar, in Asia Minor ; with Lake Tiberias and the Dead 
Sea in Palestine. 

306. African Lakes. — The largest body of inland water 
known in Africa, until recently, was Lake Tsad. It lies in the 
central part of the continent, and is several thousand square 
miles in area ; but its waters are very shallow. It is not known 
to have an outlet, but is fresh and clear, and probably has a 
channel of discharge like other fresh- water lakes. 

307. Recent explorations in the southeast of Africa have 
made known the existence of several large lakes, the most ex- 
tensive of which is Lake Victoria Nyanza or Zlkereice, the 
long-sought source of the Nile. Its area is not yet deter- 
mined, but is believed to considerably exceed that of Lake Tsad. 
Its height is 3,553 feet above the level of the sea. Not far 



Questions.— 302. What ia said <.f the lakes in Scotland ? Loch Lomond ? 303. Lakes in 
Ireland ? 304. Give particulars of Lake Baikal. 305. What other Asiatic lakes are 
mentioned? 806 Give particulars of Lake Tsad. 307. Of Lake Victoria Nyanza. Lakes 
near it ? Other noted African lakes ? 



from this, at a lower elevation, are Lake Little Luta Nzige 
(unexplored), and Lake Tanganyika or Ujiji. Among other 
noted African lakes are Tzana or JDembea, in Abyssinia, and 
JVyanJa or JVyassi, and Shirva, in or near the borders of Mo- 
zambique. 



LESSON XIII. 

THE OCEAN. 

308. The vast body of water which surrounds the land and 
penetrates its coast is comprehended under the general name 
of the ocean. For convenience sake it is divided into five por- 
tions, named, respectively, the Arctic, Atlantic, Indian, Pacific, 
and Antarctic oceans. These, with their branches, are as 
follows : 

1. Branches. 

Extends from the northern } Baffin Bay. 
shores of America, Europe, | White Sea. 
Asia, and the arctic circle i Gulf of Kara. 
. around the north pole J Gulf of Obi. 



Arctic Ocean . 



Atlantic Ocean. 



Pacific Ocean. 



Indian Ocean. 



n. 

Bounded on the west by Amer- 
ica ; east by Europe and Af- 
rica ; north by the arctic, and 
south by the antarctic cir- 
cle — divided by the equator 
into the North and South 
Atlantic 

III. 

Inclosed between America on 
the east ; Asia, the Sunda 
Isles, and Australia on the 
west ; and the arctic circle on 
the north ; the antarctic on 
the south — divided by the . 
equator into the North and | 
South Pacific J 

IV. 
Bounded by Africa on the "1 
west ; the Sunda Isles and 
Australia on the east ; south- 
ern Asia on the north ; and 
the antarctic circle on the 
south 



Baltic with its gulfs. 
North Sea. 
Mediterranean. 
Black Sea. 
Hudson Bay. 
Gulf of Mexico. 
Caribbean Sea. 



Sea of China. 
Yellow Sea. 
Sea of Japan. 
Sea of Okhotsk. 
Sea of Kamtchatka^ 
Behring Strait. 
Gulf of California. 
Bay of Panama. 



Ked Sea. 
Arabian Sea. 
Persian Gulf. 
Bengal Sea. 



Antarctic Ocean. 



Extends from the antarctic ) 
circle around the south pole, j 

309. The Arctic Ocean has been but partially explored. 
Various efforts have been made to reach its higher latitudes, 
but, up to this time, they have. proved unsuccessful, in con- 
sequence of the impenetrable fields of ice which are met with, 
and the impossibility of remaining in those regions with safety 
for a great length of time. During the winter months the waters 
of the Arctic Ocean are covered with ice, which in summer is 
broken up and drifted into lower latitudes, where it is dissolved. 



Questions— 808. Under what general name is the vast body of water which surrounds the 
land comprehended 1 How is it divided ? Describe the situation, and mention the principal 
bran hes of the Arctic Ocean, Atlantic, Pacific, Indian, Antarctic. 309. What is said of the 
Arctic Ocean ? Why have the efforts made to reach its higher latitudes been unsuccessful? 



40 



THE WATERS. 



310. The floating masses of ice in the arctic waters are of 
two kinds, sheet-ice and icebergs, which have quite an inde- 
pendent origin. Sheet-ice is that which is formed by the 
freezing of the ocean's surface, and is generally level like that 
of lakes; it rises from two to eight feet out of the water. 
Vast fields, 20 or 30 miles in diameter, have been found in the 
Arctic Ocean; sometimes they extend 100 miles, so closely 
packed together that no opening is left between them. Smaller 
sheets are called floes. Fields and fioes, when much broken 
up, the fragments crowding together, form what is called pack- 
ice, which, when much elongated, is called a stream. When 
the parts of a pack are loose and open, so that a vessel may sail 
between them, it is called drift-ice. 

311. In 1850, Lieut. Dc Haven, commanding the Grinnell Expedition in 
search of Sir John Franklin, proceeded into the Arctic Ocean a considerable 
distance north of Wellington Channel. Here, in the early part of October, 
■while drifting about among large masses of floating ice, his vessels (two in 
number) -were frozen in so firmly that it was impossible, with all the means 
at command, to disengage them from the ice. In this state they were 
drifted back through AVellington Channel and Lancaster Sound into Baffin 
Bay, thence southeasterly through this bay to about latitude 66° north, 
where, after having been confined in the ice nearly eight months, and 
having drifted not less probably than 1,500 miles, they were liberated from 
their icy fetters. 

312. Icebergs are fresh-water formations ; and, towering like 
cliffs to a considerable height, they present a very different 
aspect from ice-fields. They are produced on the shores of 
arctic lands by the freezing of melted snow, like the glaciers 
of Switzerland. The frozen masses projecting into the sea, 
yield to its undermining and wrenching power, by which im- 
mense blocks are broken off, constituting icebergs. These 
huge masses are drifted southward 2,000 miles from the places 
of their origin to melt in the Atlantic, where they cool the 




ICFBERGS. 

water and air to a great distance around. Icebergs vary from 
a few yards to miles in circumference, and are often 1,000 feet 
high. 

313. It is supposed that the point of the greatest cold is near 
the northern border of Little Grinnell Land, north of Welling- 



Questions.— S10. Of what two kinds are the floating masses of ice ? Describe' the sheet- 
ice. Its extent. Fioes. Pack-ice. Streams. Drift-ice. 811. What part of the Arctic 
Ocean was reached by Lieut. Dc Haven ? What subsequently happened to his vessels ? 
How long were they conflned and how far did they drift ? 312. What are icebergs ? How 
produced ? How far south do they s.-metimes drift ? 



ton Channel, and that not far to the north and west of it 
there is, in summer, a comparatively open sea, or " Polynia." 
The latter opinion is supported by the fact that beasts and 
fowls are known to misrrate over the ice from the mouth of 




SCENE IN TIIE ARCTIC OCEAN. 



Mackenzie River and its neighboring shores to the north ; and 
that, in the highest latitudes yet reached, both animal and veg- 
etable life appear to be more abundant than a few degrees 
farther south, and the waters exhibit a higher temperature. 
In further confirmation of this conjecture, Dr. Kane reports the 
discovery of a great body of open water north of Cape Consti- 
tution (latitude 81° 22' north), on the coast of Greenland ; 
along the shores of which the exploring party traveled for many 
miles, and which "was viewed from an elevation of 5S0 feet, 
still without a limit, moved by a heavy swell, free of ice, and 
dashing in surf against a rock-bound shore." 

314. The Atlantic Ocean is the best known of any of the 
divisions of the great deep, it being the highway of the world's 
commerce, and constantly traversed by hosts of vessels in which 
millions of property and thousands of lives are embarked. It 
extends upward of 9,000 miles from north to south, with a width 
varying from little more than 900 miles between Norway and 
Greenland, to 1,700 miles between Cape St. Roque, in Brazil, 
and the coast of Sierra Leone, in Africa. 

315. The North Atlantic, though generally very deep, is re- 
markable for immense shoals occurring in the North Sea, and 
to the southeast of Newfoundland. It is also noted for the im- 
mense portion of its surface occupied by sea-weed {fucus 
natans), closely matted together, forming what is sometimes 
known as the " Grassy Sea." A region of this weed extends 
along the meridian of 40° west longitude, and between the lat- 
itudes 20° and 45° north, bearing the name of "Banks of 
Fucus." It occurs thence in varying quantities to the Baha- 
mas, the area occupied being equal to 1,000,000 geographical 
square miles and upward, — more than one third the extent 
of the whole territory of the United States. 

316. The Pacific Ocean has about twice the area of the At- 
lantic, extending upward of 9,000 miles from north to south, 
and fiom east to west 12.000 miles. It was so called bv the 



Questions.— SIS. Supposed point of the greatest cold ? Open sea or "Polynia"? Con- 
firmation of this conjecture ? 314. The Atlantic Ocean ? Its extent? 815. The North 
Atlantic ? For what noted ? Where are the Banks of Fucus situated ? Where else does 
it occur? Extent of the sea so occupied? 816. What is said of the Pacific Ocean ? Why 
so called ? For what remarkable ? 



THE OCEAN. 



41 



early navigators on account of its peaceful aspect, as contrasted 
with the stormy seas of Cape Horn. It is remarkable for the 
number of its islands, and for submarine coral formations, which 
render navigation difficult and dangerous. 

317. The Indian Ocean extends upward of 6,000 miles, from 
the tropic of Cancer, at the head of the Arabian Sea, to the 
antarctic circle ; and has its greatest breadth, amounting to 
5,000 miles, between the south point of Africa and Van Die- 
men's Land. It is remarkable for its hurricanes and monsoons, 
which will be treated of in another division. 

318. The Antarctic Ocean presents features similar to the 
Arctic, but the ice extends farther from the south than from the 
opjjosite pole. Its waters are almost always agitated ; there is 
a perpetual swell, and terrific storms are common. Packed ice 
occurs to an immense extent. Sir James Ross passed through 
a belt upward of 800 miles broad. 

319. The discoveries, in 18-10, of Commodore Wilkes, com- 
mander of the United States Exploring Expedition, estab- 
lished the fact that there is a vast antarctic continent near 
the south pole. Victoria Land, the most southern land 
known, was discovered in the same year by Sir James Ross, 
who penetrated to latitude 78° 10' south, the point nearest 
the south pole ever yet reached. 




LESSON XIV. 

THE OCEAN— (continued). 

320. The temperature of the ocean, though varying in differ- 
^^^j^j,^^ ent latitudes, is more uni- 

form than that of the land. 
Thus, in equatorial regions, 
the difference in the tem- 
perature of the air near the 
^ f- '• surface of the sea, by day 

; ^^J^ 4~j and night, does not appear 
S^jm^J^ r::^z ' t0 exceed three or four de- 
grees. In temperate cli- 
mates the diurnal range of 
temperature is rather great- 
er, but it is by no means 
equal to that on land. 
the ocean. 3 2i. From numerous ob- 

servations of the temperature of the ocean the following facts 
have been deduced : 1. The temperature of the surface of the 
ocean is generally lower at mid-day than that of the atmo- 
sphere in the shade. 2. It is always higher at midnight. 3. 
Morning and evening the two temperatures usually correspond. 
4. The mean temperature of the surface of the ocean far from 
land is greater than that of the atmosphere with which it is 
in contact. 5. The water is colder where it is shallow than 

Questions.— SIT. The Indian Ocean ? For what remarkable ? 318. Antarctic Ocean ? 
State of its waters ? Packed ice? 319. The discoveries of Com. Wilkes ? Of S:r James 
Boss? 320. What is said of the temperature of tne ocean ? Illustrate. 321. What is said 
of the temperature of the surface of the ocean at mid-day? At midnight? Morning and 
evening? Of the mean temperature of the ocean far from land? Of shallow water? 
Depths affeeted by seasonal changes ? Where is the greatest heat of ihe surface found ? 




where it is of great depth. 6. The seasonal changes of the 
temperature of the air do not affect the ocean beyond the depth 
of 300 feet. 7. The greatest heat of the surface, 88° 5' of 
Fahrenheit, is found in the Gulf of Mexico, and in one of the 
havens of New Guinea. 

322. The color of the ocean is generally of a deep bluish 
green, but it varies with every gleam of sunshine or passing 
cloud, from the deepest indigo to green, and even to a slaty 
gray. It is different in different localities, depending upon 
local causes. It is white in the Gulf of Guinea and black 
around the Maldives. Between China and Japan it is yellow- 
ish, and west of the Canaries and Azores it is green. In some 
parts, as off California, it has a vermilion hue ; in others, as 
the eastern division of the Mediterranean Sea, a purple tint 
prevails. 

323. These various shades are, in most instances, caused by 
myriads of marine animalcules which pervade the deep ; and 
the magnificent appearance, known as the phosphorescence 
of the ocean, is owing to the phosphorescent brilliancy of these 
microscopic tribes. The bed of the ocean, in shallow places, 
often imparts a tings to the superincumbent waters, while the 
gray or turbid appearance, near the mouths of large rivers, arises 
from the sediment washed in from the land. 

324. The depth of the ocean was, until recently, a subject 
of speculation only. The experiments made during the past 
few years have added more to our knowledge of the dejith 
of the ocean and the shape of the oceanic basins, particularly 
that of the Atlantic, than was ever before known. 

325. Like the dry land, the bottom of the sea is diversified 
with slopes, plains, table-lands, eminences abruptly projecting 
to within a few feet of the surface, or just peering above the 
waves, and with enormous depressions. It has been generally 
supposed that the depth of the sea is about equal to the height 
of the land, the lowest valleys of the ocean's bed corresponding 
with the summits of the loftiest mountains. 

326. The experiments in deep-sea sounding initiated a few 
years since by Lieut. Maury, formerly of the United States 
National Observatory, will probably throw some light upon 
this conjecture. Before a systematic investigation was thus 
attempted, no well-directed efforts to fathom the lower abysses 
had been made. Navigators had tied weights to lines and 
thrown them overboard with the view of measuring the depth ; 
but the lines were often unwieldy, and. there was no certain 
means of knowing whether the plummet had reached the bot- 
tom, or, if it had reached the bottom, at what moment. 

327. More recent investigations have led to the belief that 
there is in the ocean, as in the air, a system of circulation, 
which, by currents and counter currents, upper and under, 
keeps the waters perpetually in motion. For it has been found 
that, generally speaking, when a sounding is made in the deep 
sea, though the vessel from which it is made be perfectly at 
rest, and though it be known that the plummet has reached the 
bottom, yet the line will continue to run out, and unless it be 
suffered to run out, or the plummet be detached from it, a strain 



Questions.— S22. Color of the ocean ? Mention its hues in different localities. 823. 
How are these shades generally caused ? What other causes affoet its color ? 324. What 
is said of th« depth of the ocean ? Kecent experiments ? 325. How is Ihe bottom of II. J 
sea diversified ? What was generally supposed respecting the depth of the sea? 326. What 
is said of former efforts to ascertain the depth of the sea ? 32T. To what belief have more 
recent investigations led ? What circumstances favor this beliel 1 



42 



THE WATERS. 



so great is brought to bear that it breaks. It is the undertow, 
or a system of currents and counter currents below, which it is 
supposed produces this strain. 

328. Most of the vessels of the navy are now furnished with 
twine made especially for deep-sea soundings ; and the results 
already obtained have enabled the officers at the National Ob- 
servatory to construct a map of the basin of the North Atlantic 
Ocean, which shows the depressions of the solid parts of the 
earth's crust below the sea-level, and which gives us, perhaps, 
as good an idea of the profile there as geographers have of the 
contrasts afforded by the elevations of the land in many parts 
of the earth. 

329. The deepest soundings ever reported were made in the 
North and in the South Atlantic Ocean. Lieut. J. C. Walsh, 
commander United States schooner Taney, being furnished 
with a large quantity of iron wire made expressly for the pur- 
pose, obtained, on the 15th November, 1849, latitude 31° 59' 
north, longitude 58° 43' west, a cast of the plummet, when, 
after 34,200 feet had run out, the wire parted without reaching 
bottom, as it was thought. On the 12th of February, 1853, 
Lieut. Berryman, of the Dolphin, in latitude 32° 55' north, 
longitude 47° 58' west, obtained a cast of the lead, using the 
small twine as a sounding line. At this trial 39,600 feet ran 
out, when the line parted, and it was consequently thought that 
the plummet had not reached the bottom. On the 5th of April, 
1852, latitude 36° south, longitude 44° 11' west, Lieut. Parker, 
of the United States frigate Congress, using a 32 lb. cannon- 
ball for his plummet, and sounding twine like that of Berry- 
man's, made an experiment at deep-sea soundings, when 49,800 
feet of line ran out before it parted. The time occupied for this 
sounding was eight hours and a quarter. 

330. The next great sounding was made by Capt. Denham, 
of H. M. ship Herald, 30th October, 1852, latitude 36° 49' 
south, longitude 37° 06' west, with 46,236 feet. He had been 
furnished with sounding twine from the United States frigate 
Congress, and instead of a 32-lb. shot, his sinker was a 9 lb. 
lead. By the light which subsequent experience has thrown 
upon the subject of deep-sea soundings, all four of these im- 
mense depths have had their accuracy questioned, and it is 
believed with reason. 

331. An instrument has been invented by Passed Midship- 
man J. M. Brooke, of the United States navy, which enables 
the officers who now attempt deep-sea soundings to detach the 
plummet from the line the moment it strikes the bottom, and 
then to haul up, attached to the line, specimens of the bottom. 
In this way specimens have been obtained from the depth 
of 12,000 feet (about 1\ miles). These specimens have been 
examined with a microscope by Prof. Bailey at West Point, 
and found to consist entirely of minute sea-shells, not a particle 
of sand or gravel, or any foreign matter being among them. 
From this it is inferred that the water at the bottom of the sea 
is comparatively at rest. 

332. The deepest part of the North Atlantic Ocean is prob- 



Questions.— 328. Wilh what are most of the vessels of the navy provided ? Results ob- 
tained ? 329. When have the deepest soundings been made? Give particulars of the 
sounding made by Lieut. J. C. Walsh. By Lieut Berryman. By Lieut Parker. 330. By 
Capt. Denham. What is thought or these soundings by the light of subsequent experi- 
ments? 331. How have specimens n' the bottom of the ocean been obtained? Of what 
have these specimens been found to consist? 



ably a little to the south of the Grand Banks of Newfound- 
land. There is a place there somewhat in the shape of a boot, 
which none of the officers of the navy have so far been able to 
fathom. The deepest soundings that have been satisfactorily 
made show that, in all other parts, the North Atlantic Ocean 
is not more than 25,000 feet in depth. The soundings which 
have been made by the navy have established the fact that 
there is a plateau, or shelf, at the bottom of the ocean be- 
tween Newfoundland and Ireland, quite shallow enough for 
the wires of a submarine telegraph, and quite deep enough to 
keep them beyond the reach of icebergs. 



LESSON XV. 

THE OCEAN— (continued). 

333. The ocean is subject to a motion of three different 
kinds : it is agitated by the action of the -wind, producing 
waves ; by tides, which result from the attraction of the moon 
and sun ; and by currents, produced under various circum- 
stances, and resulting from a variety of causes. 

334. Waves are produced by the action of the winds on the 
surface of the water, and vary in size from mere ripples to 
enormous billows. Their height in open sea depends upon the 
force and duration of the wind, and the angle at which it bears 
down upon the waters; but in lakes and bays it is affected by 
the shallowness of the waters and the character of the shores ; 




on which account the shallow waters of Lake Erie are more 
readily disturbed by winds than the deeper lakes, Ontario and 
Huron. 

335. Waves are not, as appearances would indicate, an on- 
ward flow of water. This is proved from the fact that a float- 
ing body merely rises and falls with little or no progression. 
Waves agitate the water but a little way below the surface, 
and it is supposed that the effect of the strongest gales does 
not extend deeper than 200 feet. 



Questions.— WH. Where is the deepest part of (he Norlh A llantic supposed to be ? What 
do the soundings show with respect to the depth of the North Atlantic in all other parts? 
What other important fact has been established by these soundings? 833. What are tho 
three different kinds of motion 10 which the ocean is subjeet v 834. How are waves pro- 
duced, and how do they vary? Upon what does their height depend? Ifow is the height af- 
fected in lakes and bays ': 335. How is it proved that waves are not an onward flow of water? 



THE OCEAN. 



43 




336. The crest of a wave (b, b) is the ridge or highest part, 

and in strong winds is usually 
covered with foam ; the trough 

^—a (c) is the depression between 
two waves, and is as much be- 
low as the crest is above the general level of the ocean. In 
estimating the elevation of a wave, the perpendicular height 
from the trough to the crest is taken. 

337. Waves are sometimes said to rim mountains high, but 
this is a popular exaggeration. The highest rise noticed in the 
Mediterranean is 16 feet, and 20 feet off Australia. During a 
storm in the Bay of Biscay, the highest waves measured scarcely 
36 feet from the base to the summit. In the South Atlantic 
the result of several experiments gave only an entire height of 
22 feet, and a velocity for the undulations of 89 miles per hour, 
the interval between each wave amounting to 1,910 feet. Off 
the Cape of Good Hope, notoriously the cape of storms, accord- 
ing to its former name, 40 feet is considered the extreme height 
of waves, or 20 feet above and below the general level of the 
ocean.* 

338. The sea does not regain its placidity immediately after 
the subsidence of the winds which set it in motion, but con- 
tinues to heave with mighty undulations for a considerable 
time afterward. This movement is called the " swell." It 
frequently occurs, that while the swell is advancing in one di- 
rection, the wind rises from an opposite quarter, producing a 
series of compound waves, and giving to the deep a very com- 
plex aspect. 

339. Tides are those regular alternate risings and fallings 
of the waters of the ocean and of bays, rivers, etc., which 
communicate freely with it. They arise from the attractive 
influence of the sun and moon, the latter being the more pow- 
erful agent. The sea rises, or flows, as it is called, by degrees, 
about six hours ; it remains stationary about a quarter of an 
hour ; it then retires, or ebbs, during another six hours, to flow 
again after a brief repose. Thus high and low water occur 
twice every lunar day, or the period elapsing between the 
successive returns of the moon to the meridian of a place, 
which is 24 hours 50-J minutes. 

340. The theory of the tides may be thus explained : Let 
.Z? represent the earth surrounded by water in every part, and 

m the moon. As a solid body 
draws toward it any other 
body, by a force which varies 
with its distance from the 
point attracted, then the wa- 
ter at a will be more power- 
fully attracted than those at e and /", and the result will be a 
bulging out of the water at a, immediately next the lunar body. 

341. But while high water is thus produced at a, it is also 
produced at the same time in the opposite hemisrjhere at d. 
Different causes have been assigned for this phenomenon, but it 



Questions. — 336. What is the crest of a wave 1 The trough ? 337. Give instances to 
show the height of waves. 338. What is the movement of [he sea called which continues 
after the subsidence of the winds ? How are compound waves produced ? 839. What are 
tides? From what do they arise ? Descihe the successive movements of the sea. 340. 
How may the theory of the tides be explained ? 




* Iiev, Thomas Milner. 



is probably likewise owing to the attractive influence of the 
moon. The earth's center, E, will be more powerfully drawn 
toward the moon than the waters at d, and recede from them, 
producing the same effect as though they receded or rose up 
from the center of the earth. As the waters can not rise in one 
place without falling in another, they are depressed at e and/" 
when elevated at a and d. 

342. If the earth remained stationary upon its axis, there 
would be two elevations and depressions of the waters in each 
place in a month, or the time the moon is making her circuit 
round the earth. But by the diurnal rotation, the moon passes 
every day the meridian of every part of the globe, producing 
daily two seasons of high and low water. 

343. The time of high tide does not coincide with the time 
when the moon is on the meridian of the place, a period of sev- 
eral hours ordinarily intervening between the time of the moon's 
transit and that of high water. The explanation of this is, that 
the. water, having received motion, continues to rise after the 
moon has passed from its meridian, the impulse continuing for 
some time after the moon's transit. 

344. Besides the attraction of the moon, the influence of the 
sun is concerned in elevating the waters of the ocean. The 
solar attraction is not so strong as the lunar, because, though a 
much larger body, the sun is at a far greater distance from the 
earth. The tidal influence of the sun has been calculated to be 
about one third that of the moon. 

345. Sometimes the sun and moon act in conjunction, as at 
the seasons of new and full moon, a and d, and then the tides 
rise the highast, and are called spring-tides ; but when the 
moon is in quadrature, as at b 
and c, it acts in opposition to 
the sun, and then occurs the 
lowest, or neap-tides. 

346. Though high tides oc- 
cur in open seas soon after the 
moon has passed the meridian, 
yet in other places shoals and 
channels, peninsulas and capes, 
and the diversified form of 
shores, so retard the progress 
of the undulation, that high water happens at all distances o 
the moon from the meridian, and consequently at all hours 
of the day. Differences of local situation cause great differ- 
ences as to the height to which the tide rises. In the central 
parts of the ocean the height is comparatively small, seldom 
exceeding three feet, but in rushing up contracted channels the 
tide-water frequently causes a difference of twenty, thirty, and 
sixty feet between high and low water mark. 

347. The cradle of tides is supposed to be that part of the 
Pacific Ocean to the southeast of Australia. Proceeding from 
this quarter, a wave advances into the Indian Ocean, reaching 
the island of Sumatra, the southern point of Hindoostan, the 




Questions.— Ml. Explain how high water will be produced in the hemisphere opposite 
the moon. 342. What would happen if the earth remained stationary ? What occurs by 
the diurnal rotation? 843. What is said of the time of high water? How explained? 
844. What is said of the influence of the sun on the tides? 345. When do the spring-tides 
occur? The neap-tides? 846. What serve to retard the progress of the undulation? 
What is said of the differences of local situation in affecting tides ? Illustrate. 347. What 
is Biipposed to be the cradle of the tides? Describe the movements of a wave proceeding 
from this quarter. 



44 



THE WATERS. 



island of Madagascar, and the Cape of Good Hope about the 
same time. [See map No. 1 .] 

348. Entering the Atlantic, the wave proceeds northerly and 
■westerly, bringing high water successively to all parts on the 
western shores of Africa and eastern shores of America. It 
moves with much greater rapidity through the central parts of 
the ocean than along the coast — in consequence of which it 
reaches the islands of Cuba and Newfoundland, and Cape 
Blanco, in Africa, simultaneously. The Atlantic coast of the 
United States receives the wave from the east, while the west- 
ern coast of Europe receives it from the west, the direction, in 
the latter case, being nearly the reverse of what it had pre- 
viously to doubling the Cape of Good Hope. 

349. Along the shores of South America, from Rio Janeiro 
to the Falkland Islands, a wave advances from east to west, 
bringing high tide later on going southward, as if the wave 
came from the north. On the western coast of South America 
the tide travels from north to south, between the Gulf of Pan- 
ama and the Strait of Magellan. And on the same side of 
North America, it travels from the Gulf of Panama northward 
to Queen Charlotte Sound. 

350. The height to which tides rise varies greatly in differ- 
ent places. At St. Helena the rise does not exceed three feet ; 
at St. Malo's, on the north coast of France, the spring tides rise 
50 feet ; at Chepstow, on the British Channel, 60 feet ; in the 
Bay of Fundy, between Nova Scotia and New Brunswick, it is 
known to rise 70 feet. On some occasions the rapidity of the 
waters is so great as to overtake animals feeding on the shores. 



TIDE TABLE TOK THE COAST OF THE UNITED STATES* 



Portland 

Boston 

New Bedford Harbor. 

Newport 

New Haven 

New York 

Old Point Comfort. . . . 

Baltimore 

Smithville 

Savannah 

Key West. 



Inteiv,! bet 



tinip 
i'«t,aii*itaiitl 

r i.i.ii water. 



Mean. 
II. M. 



11 25 
11 22 

7 5T 
T 45 

11 16 

8 18 
8 17 

18 33 

7 19 

8 18 

9 22 



44 
44 
41 

24 

1 8 
46 
50 
48 
47 

51 

1 12 



Hise. otid Fall. 



Mean. 
Feet. 



5.8 

4.8 

2.5 

1.3. 

4.5 

6.5 

1.4 



Spring 

Feet. 



10.0 
13.1 
4.6 
4.6 
6.6 
5.4 

1.5 
55 
7.6 



Neap. 
Feet. 



7.6 

7.4 
2.8 
8.1 
5.1 
8.4 

0.9 

3.8 
5.5 

0.7 



- Mean Deration. 



Flood. 
II. 31. 



6 14 
6 16 
6 50 
6 21 
6 24 
6 
6 1 
6 54 
6 1 

5 4 

6 59 



Ebb. 

II. M. 



Stand. 
II. M. 



20 
9 
42 
28 

28 



26 
14 
12 



LESSON XVI. 

THE OOEAIST— (continued). 

351. Currents constitute the third oceanic movement. They 
consist of vast oceanic streams which keep up a perpetual circula- 
tion of the waters, transferring them from one hemisphere to an- 
other — from the Pacific to the Atlantic, and to the Pacific again 
— and from the polar seas to the warm regions of the torrid zone. 



Questions.— 348. Its progress after entering the Atlantic 0-ean. What three points are 
reached simultaneously ? 849. What is the direction of the wave south of Rio Janeiro ? 
Describe its movements on the western coast of South America. On the western coast of 
North America. 850. Mention the height to which tides rise at different places. 



* The author is indebted for the above table to the kindness of A. D. Bactae, Superin- 
tendent of the United States Coast Survey. 



352. Currents are due to a variety of causes ; as the influence 
of tides and winds, — the evaporating power of the sun, — the 
expansion and contraction of water by heat and cold, — and the 
revolution of the earth upon its axis. 

353. The effect of the rise and fall of tides in producing an 
alternate flowing of currents in opposite directions, is per- 
ceived in channels between islands, or between islands and the 
mainland. Thus, in the channel which connects Long Island 
Sound with the Harbor of New York, known as the East River, 
strong currents alternately prevail in opposite directions, as the 
tide ebbs or flows. 

354. Evaporation by solar heat is another cause of oceanic 
currents. Large quantities of water raised from one tract of 
the ocean are transported to some other, where the vapor is 




GIBRALTAR. 



condensed and falls in the form of rain ; this, in flowing back 
to restore equilibrium, causes sensible currents. A perpetual 
stream flows into the Mediterranean from the Black Sea 
through the Bosphorus and the Hellespont, and another from 
the Atlantic through the Strait of Gibraltar. No counter, 
lateral, or submarine currents have been discovered sufficient 
to dispose of the quantity of water flowing inward ; hence the 
inference that the inward current goes to supply the waste 
caused by an enormous evaporation. 

355. The expansion and contraction of water by heat and cold 
are perhaps the principal causes to which currents are due. 
Warm water is specifically lighter than cold, and when certain 
portions become heated, they rise by reason of their buoyancy 
above the general surface, and are replaced by surrouuding 
colder and heavier fluid flowing in beside or beneath them; 
while they flow off above. 

356. The revolution of the earth upon its axis is still another 
powerful cause in producing currents, particularly those of the 
equatorial regions, which have commonly a westerly direction. 
The winds of tropical climates, which blow continuously, or 
during long periods in one direction, also lend their influence in 
affecting this class of oceanic movements. 

357. Currents may be classed into constant, periodical, vari- 
able, counter, and drift currents. Constant currents are pro- 



Questions. — 851. Of what do currents consist? 852. To what are they duo ? 858. Where 
is the effect of the rise and fall of tidesin producing currents perceived ? Example. 354. 
How does evaporation by solar heat operate to produce currents ? Mention what is said 
of the Mediterranean Sea. 355. What are perhaps the principal causes to which currents 
are due 1 Explain how they affect the currents. 356. What other causes are instru mental 
in producing currents ? 357. How may currents be classed ? What are constant currents ? 
Periodical currents? Variable currents ? Counter currents ? Drift currents ? 



THE OCEAN". 



45 



duced by the rotation of the earth, differences of temperature 
in the waters of the ocean, and other causes not yet fully 
understood. Periodical currents are principally due to the 
action of tides, though they are doubtless affected somewhat 
by the land and sea breezes and monsoons. Variable currents 
are occasioned by tides, winds, and the melting of ice in the 
polar regions. Counter currents are the streams that flow 
alongside or beneath, and in opposite directions to, other 
currents. Drift currents are the effect of permanent and pre- 
Tailing winds upon the surface of the sea, and a variety of 
other causes. 

358. Eastern Polar or Greenland Current. — The East- 
ern Polar or Greenland Current originates in the Arctic Ocean 
north of Asia. It sweeps around the northern shores of Spitz- 
bergen and Iceland, and flows southwesterly between the latter 
island and Greenland. Near Cape Farewell it sends off a 
branch which runs into Baffin Bay, but its principal flow ap- 
pears to be southwesterly between the Gulf Stream and the 
neighboring coast of America. 

359 The breadth of this current is in some places from 
250 to 300 miles. Its velocity varies, in different parts of 
its course, from eight or nine to fifteen or sixteen miles per 
day. The icy masses it bears along, and which are frequently 
swept around Cape Farewell, are supposed to be about two 
months in making the circuit to Baffin Bay and thence to the 
coast of Labrador. 

360. This current is distinguished for the great amount of 
drift-wood which it floats along and casts upon the shores of 
Spitzbergen, Iceland, and other lands lying in its way. The 
masses of floating wood thrown upon the island of Jan Mayen 
often equal, it is said, the whole of the island in extent. It is 
supposed that this timber comes from the forests of Siberia, and 
is carried into the Arctic Ocean by the streams of northern Asia. 

361. Recent obseiwations in high northern latitudes show 
that the Eastern Polar or Greenland Current presents one of 
the most formidable difficulties in exploring the polar regions. 
Parry, who attempted to reach the north pole by means of 
boat-sledges and reindeer, traveled over the surface of the deep 
to nearly lat. 83°, which seemed to be the utmost limit of an- 
imal life. Here he found that when, according to his reckon- 
ing, he had traveled ten or eleven miles toward the north, he 
had actually gone four miles to the south, owing to the cur- 
rent. The success of the expedition was thus rendered hope- 
less. The two vessels of the Grinnell Expedition which were 
sent out, under the command of Lieut. De Haven, to search 
for Sir John Franklin, after having penetrated far into Wel- 
lington Channel, were inclosed firmly in the ice, and drifted 
backward through Baffin Bay, a distance of not less than fifteen 
hundred miles, thus defeating the plan of one of the noblest 
and most humane enterprises ever undertaken. 

362. Equatorial Current. — The most extensive movement 
of the ocean is that which proceeds from east to west, on 
each side of the equator, and is therefore called the Equato- 

Ouestions. - 359. Origin or Eastern Polar or Greenland Current? Its course? Branch? 
Principal flow? 359. What is the breadth of this curreni ? Its velocity ? 360. For what 
is it distinguished ? 361. What do recent observations in high northern latitudes show? 
Describe the attempt of Parry to reach the north pole. The drift of the two vessels of the 
Grinnell Vxpedition. 362. Which is the most extensive movement of the ocean, and what 
is it called ? How does it originate ? Cause of this movement of the waters ? How do 
the inflowing acquire a peculiar tendency? 



rial Current. It originates in the general inflowing of waters 
from the temperate and polar regions, but especially from the 
Antarctic Ocean and neighboring seas. These waters, over- 
balancing the heated and therefore expanded and specifically 
lighter waters at the equator, cause them to rise above the 
general level and overflow in a constantly spreading stream. 
But as the inflowing waters come from parts of the earth's 
surface which lie nearer the poles or the earth's axis, and 
have a less rapid diurnal movement (from, west to east) than 
the parts near the equator, they accordingly partake of this 
movement ; and hence, as they approach the equator, fall be- 
hind the more swiftly advancing points of its surface, and thus 
acquire a western tendency. Accordingly the Equatorial Cur- 
rent, fed by these westerly moving waters, has a resulting 
westward course; and, crowding against the eastern shores 
of the continents and of the great islands which separate the 
Pacific from the Indian Ocean, divides into various streams, 
most of which flow off to the north and south. 

363. In the Indian Archipelago and neighboring seas, how- 
ever, it separates into numerous small branches that take 
different courses according to the channels through which they 
flow : hence the variable currents prevailing in the Indian 
Ocean, which render navigation so dangerous. A large vol- 
ume of water forces its way through the islands, and joins the 
great equatorial current which moves on toward the eastern 
coast of Africa. The greater portion of the stream flows round 
north of the island of Madagascar, and sweeps through the 
channel of Mozambique, after which, being joined by other 
currents from the east, it moves toward the southern ex- 
tremity of Africa, where it is said to unite with a current 
descending along the western coast of the grand division, and 
to flow thence to the Antarctic Ocean. 

364. The Equatorial Current, on reaching Cape St. Roque, 
the most eastern point of South America, is separated into two 
branches. One proceeds southward along the coast of South 
America, under the name of the Brazilian Current, and termi- 
nates in a region of variable currents, the chief of which — 
observed as moving to the eastward with an increasing velocity 
— has been designated as the South Connecting Current. 

365. The other and principal branch of the Equatorial Cur- 
rent of the Atlantic is known as the Guiana Current. It runs 
from off Cape St. Roque, across the mouth of the Amazon, and 
after skirting the low coast of Guiana, and passing through the 
Caribbean Sea, it enters the Gulf of Mexico between the island 
of Cuba and the peninsula of Yucatan. 

366. Mexican Gule Stream. — This is the most powerful 
current known, and the most important in consequence of the 
extent to which it affects the navigation of the Atlantic. It 
originates in the Gulf of Mexico, the waters of which are 
characterized by a remarkably high temperature. It pours 
forth at a rate of from three to five miles an hour through the 
straits of Florida, and flows in a northeasterly direction along 
the whole coast of the United States, expanding in volume 



QueMons.-KemU concerning the Equatorial Current? 363. What happens on its 
reaching the Indian Archipelago ? Describe its subsequent course. 364. Its brandies in 
the Atlantic ? What of its southern branch ? 365. What is the name of the other 
branch, and where does it run ? 366. What is said of the Mexican Gulf Stream ? 
Where docs it originate ? Its velocity through the straits of F'orida ? Its subsequent 
course ? Us course after striking the banks of Newfoundland ? Great whirlpool of the 
Atlantic 1 



46 



THE WATERS. 



and diminishing in rapidity.* On striking the banks of New- 
foundland, it sets to the east : the northern portion, however, 
sweeps toward Iceland, Norway, and the British Isles ; the 
southern portion flows to the Azores, where it turns south and 
enters the Equatorial Current on the coast of Africa, and is 
conducted again to the west, to re-enter into itself in the Gulf 
of Mexico. Thus the waters of the Atlantic Ocean between 
the parallels of 11° and 43° constitute a whirlpool of prodigious 
extent, by which a single particle of water describes a circuit 
of over 11,000 iniles in the sjiace of two years and ten months. 
367. The Gulf Stream, as it issues from the straits of Florida, 
is a dark indigo-blue ; the line of junction between it and the 
green waters of the Atlantic is plainly seen for hundreds of 
miles. This line is finally lost to the eye as the stream goes 
north, though it is preserved to the thermometer for several 
thousand miles. From observations made with the deep-sea 
thermometer, it has been ascertained that, "the stream, as far 
as the banks of Newfoundland, flows through a bed of cold 
water, which cold water performs to the warm the office of 
banks to a river."f 

Quest'ors.— 867. What is the color of the Gulf Stream? What fact has been ascer- 
tained respecting it V SuS. What is said of its temperature? 



* Different opinions have been formed respecting the cause of the Gulf Stream. It is 
supposed by some, that the waters of the Mexican Gulf have a higher level than those 
of the Atlantic in eonsiquence of the trade-winds and the influx of the Equatorial Cur- 
rent; anl that the current is merely the running of of the water in order to restore an 
equilibrium. Accordingly, the stream has been likened to " an immense river descending 
from a higher level into a plain." But Lieut. Maury has very satisfactorily disproved 
this theory, and shown that, " ins'ead of descending, its bed (the bed of the stream) 
represents the surface of an inclined plane from the north, up which the lower depths 
of the stream must ascend." It is safe to assume, respecting the cause of this remarkable 
current, tru.t it is influenced much by the excessive temperature imparted to the waters 
of tne Gulf of Mexico. The course of the Gulf Stream has been assigned to the differ- 



368. Coming from the heated caldron of the Gulf of Mexico, 
the waters of the Gulf Stream have a high temperature, which 
is gradually lost as they reach higher latitudes. "The maxi- 
mum temperature of the Gulf Stream is 86°, or about 9° above 
the ocean temperature due the latitude. Increasing its lati- 
tude 10°, it loses 2° of temperature. And, after having run 
3,000 miles toward the north, it still preserves, even in winter, 
the heat of summer. With this temperature it crosses the 
40th degree of north latitude, and there, overflowing its liquid 
banks, it spreads itself out for thousands of square leagues 
over the cold waters around, and covers the ocean with a 
mantle of warmth that serves so much to mitigate in Europe 
the rigors of winter. Moving now more slowly, but dispens- 
ing its genial influences more freely, it finally meets the British 
Islands. By these it is divided, one part going into the polar 
basin of Spitzbergen, the other entering the Bay of Biscay, but 
each with a warmth considerably above ocean temperature. 
Such an immense volume of heated water can not fail to carry 
with it beyond the seas a mild and moist atmosphere. And 
this it is which so much softens the climate there."J 

Questions. — What is its maximum or greatest temperature, and how many degrees is 
it above that due the latitude? Describe how the Gulf Stream serves to moderate the 
climate of Europe. 

ence in dens'ity between the waters of the Caribbean Sea and the Gulf of Mexico, and 
those of the Baltic and the North seas. The waters of the former contain a larger pro- 
portion of salt, and are consequently heavier than sea water; while those of the latter, 
being only slightly impregnated with saline matter, are much lighter than common sea 
water. This difference in density destroys the equilibrium and produces a current ; " for 
wherever equilibrium be destroyed, it is restored by motion, and motion among fluid par- 
ticles gives rise to currents, which, in turn, constitute circulation." It fs more probable, 
however, that its curvilinear direction is due to the less rapid eastward movement of the 
earth's surface as it approaches the higher latitudes. 
t Lieut. M. F. Maury, $ Ibid, 



PART III. 



THE ATMOSPHERE. 




LESSON I. 

COMPOSITION OF AIR. 

, := ^ r p^^gm TMOSPIIERE is the name of 

"3\\j ( % / &f- 1 ' latt ' 1 i n > transparent, and high- 

^■^4^?;- w->i\J:; h' elastic fluid which surrounds 

the earth on every side, and 
accompanies it in its diurnal 
revolution upon its axis and its 
annual motion round the sun. 
' ■^^^^^^^^R£3^5:^^ I* ^ s lighter than either land or 
'^"^^^^^^^^^^S^^^^ water, and rises above them, 

but is kept by the force of 
gravity close to the surface of 
the earth, where its use is indispensable to all living creatures. 
It is the medium through which sound, light, and odor are 
transmitted ; it is the vehicle in which moisture is raised and 
diffused ; and the agent by which that diversity of color so 
pleasing to the eye is produced in natural objects. 

370. Atmosphere is unlike the great divisions of land and 
water in not being perceptible to the touch unless in agitation. 
Its existence as a material substance is evident the moment it 
is set in motion. It not only carries away in its progress the 
lighter substances with which it comes in contact, but, when 
greatly agitated, uproots trees, crumbles rocks, and overturns 
buildings. Its motion is applied as a mechanical force, and as 
such is of vast use to man in wafting his vessels over the ocean. 

371. The atmosphere is composed principally of two different 
gases, termed oxygen and nitrogen, the relative proportions 
being 21 parts of the former to 79 of the latter. It contains a 
small but variable proportion of aqueous vapor, and a still 
smaller proportion of carbonic acid gas. The proportions of 
oxygen and nitrogen are definite, but the amount of aqueous 
vapor fluctuates. Under ordinary circumstances, the composi- 
tion of 1000 parts of the atmosphere may be stated as follows : 

Oxygen 210.0 

Nitrogen 775.0 

Aqueous vapor 14.2 

Carbonic acid 0.8 

1094.0 

372. The same proportions of oxygen and nitrogen are found 
in the atmosphere of all countries, and at all elevations, over 
land and over sea, on the summit of the highest mountains and 
at their base, at the equator, and in high northern and southern 
latitudes. The quantity of carbonic acid gas is, however, 
greater near the level of the sea in summer than in winter ; 

Questions. — 369. Of what is atmosphere the name ? What is said of its lightness ? 
What else is remarked of it ? 870. How is atmosphere unlike the great divisions of land 
and water? Its effects when in motion? Its motion how applied? 871. Of what is the 
atmosphere principally composed, and in what proportions ? What other substances does 
it contain? Slate the composition of 1000 parts of the atmosphere. 872. What is said 
of the invariable proportions of oxygen and nitrogen in common air ? In what localities, 
and at whet times, is the quantity of carbonic acid greater ? 



greater during the night than the day ; and rather more 
abundant on the summit of high mountains than on plains. 

373. Oxygen and nitrogen are extremely different in their 
properties. Oxygen gas is a supporter of combustion, and is 
required for the support of animal life, while nitrogen, in its 
unmixed state, is destructive to both. Without oxygen, fires 
would cease to burn, and all animals would immediately expire. 
By the process of breathing it is taken into the lungs and goes 
to purify the blood. When the blood is brought into the lungs 
it is of a dark purple color, but it then throws off the hydrogen 
and carbon, and receives oxygen, which gives it a bright red 
color. A portion of the nitrogen that is received by the lungs 
appears to be absorbed, while the other and larger part is 
rejected and thrown back again into the atmosphere in which 
it immediately rises, being lighter than air. 




LESSON II. 

PROPERTIES OE THE ATMOSPHERE. 

374. The general properties of the atmosphere are tranSf 
parency, fluidity, weight, and elasticity. Transparency is that 
.at fes& p . - state or property it posses- 

ses by which it suffers rays 



of light to pass through 
-Se it, so that objects can be 

. w : -= distinctly seen through it. 

The various degrees of 
clearness in the atmosphere 
_• are owing to particles of 
vapor and other substances 
which float in it. Distant 
objects sometimes appear 
twice as near as at others, a phe- 
nomenon occasioned by the differ- 
ence in the purity of the atmosphere, 
or its freedom from aqueous and 
other particles. 

375. By ike. fluidity of the atmo- 
sphere is meant that quality it possesses which renders it im- 
pressible to the slightest force, and by which the particles 
easily move or change their relative positions. Fluidity is a 
property common to liquid and aeriform substances. The at- 
mosphere, like other fluids, presses in all directions, upward as 
well as downward, and is capable of supporting light bodies. 




Questions.— 373. What is said of oxygen gas 1 Of nitrogen gas ? What would happen 
without oxygen? What is the color of the blood when brought into the lungs? What 
change then takes place? What becomes of the nitrogen received into the lungs? 
374. What are the general properties of the atmosphere? What is transparency? To 
what are the various degrees of clearness owini? Why do distant objects appear 
sometimes twice as near as at others? 875. What is meant by the fluidity of the atmo- 
sphere ? ITow does the atmosphere press ? 



48 



THE ATMOSPHERE. 





f 3* 


2 




7 


4 




10J- 


8 


at the 


14 


miles above the level 16 


height of 


17* 


of the sea, the air is 32 




21 


64 




24 } 


128 




28 


256 



376. The air is ponderable, or has iceight. The pressure or 
weight exerted upon every square inch of the earth's surface is 
equal to about 15 pounds. In consequence of its fluidity it 
presses equally in every direction, and the human body, of the 
ordinary size (supposed to measure 15 square feet), sustains the 
enormous pressure of 31,536 pounds or 14 tons. "We do not 
feel the pressure, owing to its acting uniformly on all sides, and 
because the air within our bodies perfectly counterpoises the 
external pressure. 

377. The weight of a column of the entire atmosphere is equal 
to that of a column of water of the same base about 34 feet high, 
or a similar column of mercury 30 inches high. The pressure di- 
minishes as we ascend, according to a scale, which is nearly cer- 
tain. From numerous observations it has been ascertained that 



times lighter than at 
the earth's surface. 



378. The pressure of the atmosphere is indicated by the 
barometer (the measure of weight), an instrument consisting of 
a column of mercury poised or pressed up into a vacuum by the 
weight of the atmosphere. The mercury rises or falls according 
to the pressure of the atmosphere, its range, at the level of the 
sea, being from about 28 to 31 inches. 

379. The barometer is used for determining the height of 
mountains. At the level of the sea the pressure is greatest in 
consequence of the weight of all the superincumbent atmo. 
sphere, and hence at that point the highest column of mercury 
will be sustained ; but as we ascend, this superincumbent press- 
ure is diminished, and consequently the mercury falls. Thus 
Humboldt, at the foot of Mount Chimborazo, found the barom- 
eter to stand exactly at 30 inches ; but on ascending the mount- 
ain to the elevation of 1 9,000 feet, it was very little higher than 
14 inches. In the pass of Antarangra (one of the highest passes 
of the Andes), Lieut. Herndon found the barometer to stand 
at 16.73 inches, indicating an elevation of 16,044 feet. Experi- 
ments have proved that the mercury will fall about T Vth of an 
inch for every 100 feet of perpendicular height, or one inch for 
every 1,000 feet. 

380. The density or pressure of the atmosphere is, by an- 
other method, made subservient to the measurement of heights ; 
namely, by observing the boiling point of water, which de- 
ceases in a ratio nearly equivalent to the decrease of atmo- 
spheric pressure. At the level of the sea, water boils, or passes 
into the state of steam, at 212° Fahrenheit, but at the Hospice 
of the Great St. Bernard it boils at the lower temperature of 
203°, and on the top of Mont Blanc at 186°. In the pass of 
Antarangra, Lieut. Herndon found water to boil at 182°.5. 
From these and other observations, it may be inferred that a 
difference of one degree in the boiling point of water, as indi- 



Cwestions.— 876. What is the pressure or weight on every square inch of the earth's 
surlace ? What pressure does the human body of the ordinary size sustain ? Why do we 
not feel the pressure? 877. To what is the weight of a column of atmosphere equal? 
878. By what instrument is the pressure of the atmosphere indicated ? What is the range 
of the mercurial column at the level of the sea ? 879. JFor what is the barometer used ? 
Where will the highest column of mercury be sustained, and why ? Why does it fall as 
we ascend? What did Humboldt discover ? Lieut Herndon ? What have experiments 
proved ? 880. By what other method may the density of the atmosphere be mado 
subservient to the measurement of heights ? 



cated by the common thermometer, answers very nearly to 550 
feet of elevation. 

381. The elasticity of the atmosphere is the property it pos- 
sesses of occupying less space under the influence of certain 
forces, and returning to its original volume when the influence 
is withdrawn. Hence its density is not uniform, but, as before 
explained, diminishes from below upward. The height of the 
atmosphere is not known, but it is supposed to extend to about 
fifty miles. By far the greater portion of it is within fifteen 
or twenty miles of the earth's surface ; and at a much less 
distance it becomes so rarefied as to be incapable of support- 
ing life. 

382. Travelers on high mountains have experienced sensible, 
and sometimes painful, proofs of the rarefied state of the air. 
In very elevated regions the thinness of the air diminishes the 
intensity of sound, renders breathing difficult, and produces a 
loss of physical strength. The blood burst from the ears and 
lips of Humboldt in attempting to reach a high elevation in the 
Andes. He experienced the same difficulty in kindling and 
maintaining a fire at great heights, which Marco Polo felt on the 
mountains of central Asia. In the high regions of the Andes 
a malady prevails, called veta, which is thus spoken of Lieut. 
Herndon : " Veta is the sickness caused by the rarity of the at- 
mosphere at these great elevations. The Indians call it veta or 
vein, because they believe it is caused by veins of metal diffusing 
around a poisonous infection. The affection displays itself in 
a violent headache, with the veins of the head swollen and 
turgid, a difficulty of respiration, and cold extremities." 



LESSON III. 

"WINDS. 

383. The atmosphere remains at rest so long as its density 
is unchanged ; but as soon as the equilibrium is broken by any 
cause whatever, a motion occurs, which is called wind. If, in 
one part of the atmosphere, the air becomes dense, it passes 
away to those parts where the density is less, in the same man- 
ner as air compressed in a pair of bellows escapes by the 
orifice. We may compare this displacement of air to that of 
water in rivers ; it is a flowing of the aerial ocean from one 
region toward another. 

384. The currents of the atmosphere perform many inval- 
uable services to man. They renew the air of cities ; and they 
mitigate the climates of the north by bringing to them the heat 
of the south. They transport the clouds from the sea to the 
interior of continents, thus aiding to fertilize regions which 
would otherwise become arid and uninhabitable. They waft 
the sails of the navigator around the globe, bring distant na- 
tions into familiarity, and are thus greatly instrumental in the 
diffusion of civilization and Christianity throughout the world. 

Questions. — At what degree of Fahrenheit does water bo'l at the level of the sea? At 
the Hospice of the Great St. Bernard ? On the top of Mount Blanc ? In the pass of An- 
tarangra? What elevation is found to answer the difference of one degree in the boiling 
point? 881. What is the elasticity of the atmosphere? How does its density diminish? 
What is the supposed height of the atmosphere ? SS2. What have travelers on high mount- 
ains experienced ? What effects are produced by the thinness of the air? 888. How long 
does the atmosphere remain at rest ? What occurs when this equilibrium is broken ? If in 
one part of the atmosphere the a ! r becomes dense, what folh'ws? To what may this d's- 
placement of the sir bo compared ? 884. Describe the mes of the atmospheric currents. 



WINDS. 



49 



Characteristics. 



Velocity of the Perpendicular force 

wind in miles on one square foot in 

per hour. pounds avoirdupois. 

1 . .». 005 Hardly perceptible. 

2 020 Just perceptible. 

5 123 Gentle, pleasant wind. 

10 .492 Brisk gale. 

20 1968 Very brisk. 

30 4.429 High wind. 

40 7.873 Very high. wind. 

50 12.300 A storm. 

60 17.715 A violent storm. 

80 31.490 A hurricane. 

100 49.200 A violent hurricane. 

389. Winds may be divided into three classes, — Variable, 
Permanent, and Periodical. 

390. Variable Winds. — Variable winds, as their name in- 



Questions.— 385. Into how many parts is the horizon divided to inaicate the direction 
of the wind ? How is the wind designated ? "What are the eight kinds of winds? Their 
initials? 386. How is the general direction of the winds near the surface of the earth 
indicated? "Where are they commonly placed, and why? "What do clouds indicate? 
3ST. What is said of tbe reverse direction of upper and under currents? Of the eruption 
of the volcano of St. Vincent ? "What have travelers found at the summit of the Peak 
ofTeneriffe? "What further illustration of this fact was afforded by the transportation 
of ashes emitted from the volcano. of Coseguina ? 388. What is said ol the unequal 
force of the wind ? Describe the force, and mention Ihe characteristic, of wind having a 
velocity of 1 mile per hour. 2 miles per hour. 5 miles per hour. 



385. To. indicate the direction of the wind the horizon is 
divided into eight equal parts, and the wind is designated by 
giving it the name of the points of the horizon whence it blows. 
The eight kinds of winds are north, northeast, east, southeast, 
south, southwest, west, and northwest. It is customary to write 
merely the initial of these words, that is : IS., IS. E., E., S. E., 
S., S, W., W., 1ST. W. 

386. The general direction of the wind near the surface 
of the earth is indicated by vanes. They are commonly placed 
on elevated buildings, such as steeples, towers, etc., so that 
small variations, resulting from accidents of the ground, may 
not have any action on them. Clouds indicate the direction 
of the upper aerial currents, and show that it differs very often 
from the direction of the wind on the surface of the earth. 

387. That the direction of the wind in the upper regions is 
often the reverse of what it is in the lower, has been conclu- 
sively proved. During an eruption of the volcano of St. Vincent 
in 1812, the ashes were conveyed in great quantities to the 
island of Barbadoes, situated to the east. These islands he in 
the range of the trade-winds, which blow from the east toward 
the west ; but the ashes, having been launched into the air as 
high as the region of the upper current, were transported by it 
in the direction from west to east. At the summit of the Peak 
of Teueriffe almost all travelers have found west winds, while 
east winds prevail at the level of the sea. On the 25th of Feb- 
ruary, 1835, the ashes emitted from the volcano of Coseguina, 
in the state of Guatemala, obscured the light of the sun for five 
days ; they rose into a high region of the atmosphere, and fell 
a short time afterward in the streets of Kingston, in Jamaica, 
which is situated, to the N. E. of Guatemala, the winds near the 
surface all the while blowing toward the S. W. 

388. Daily experience teaches us the unequal force of the 
wind, exhibiting every conceivable variety, from the almost in- 
sensible breeze to the hurricane which prostrates the monarch 
of the forest. The following facts respecting the velocity 
and force of winds have been ascertained : 



cates, are very irregular as to time, direction, and force, and 
seldom continue to blow for many days. They prevail in the 
temperate and frigid zones, those of the torrid zone being, for 
the most part, either permanent or periodical. 

391. We are not fully acquainted with the causes which 
produce these partial and ever-fluctuating aerial currents, but 
there is no doubt that they are mainly due to the unequal states 
of the temperature of land and sea. Although these winds al- 
ternately come from every point of the compass, changing 
frequently from one point to the opposite in a very short space 
of time, it has been observed that different seasons are charac- 
terized by winds from different directions. Franklin long ago 
observed in North America that in summer the winds come 
from the south and in winter from the north. 

392. From numerous observations made in different parts 
of Europe, the following laws have been established: in win- 
ter, the direction of the wind is principally from the south, its 
force being greatest in January. In spring, east winds are 
common at certain places in March, and at other places in 
April. In summer, especially in July, the winds blow chiefly 
from the west, and in autumn the south winds more frequently 
blow, particularly in October. 

393. Designating the total number of winds that blow in 
a given time by 1000, the following table shows their relative 
frequency in the countries named : 

Countries. M". M". E. E. S. E. S. S. W. W. H". W. 

North America. . . 96 110 49 108 123. . . .197. . . .101. . . .210 

England 82. . . .111. . . . 99.... 81. . . .111. . . .225. . . .171. . . .120 

France 126 140 84. . . . 76 117. . . .192 155. . . .110 

Germany 84.... 98. . . .119. . . . 87.... 97. . . .185. . . .198. . . .131 

Denmark 65.... 98. . . .100. . . .129. . . . 92. . . .198. . . .161. . . .156 

Sweden 102... 104.... 80. . . .110- . . .128. . .210. . . .159. . . .106 

Prussia 99 191 81 130 98. ...143 166 192 

394. There is a certain class of variable winds known to 
possess peculiar properties, such as the hot winds felt on the 
northern coast of Africa, in Persia, India, and China, the cold 
winds of Siberia, the pestilential simoon or samiel of Africa, 
Arabia, and Mesopotamia, etc. Winds partake of the property 
of the regions from which they come; thus, m Europe, the 
west winds which blow from the Atlantic are more moist than 
the east, which sweep over the continent. On the Atlantic 
coast of the United States, the winds which come from the 
northeast are remarkable for their chilliness, and for the disa- 
greeable storms which accompany them. Variable winds may 
be subdivided into cold and hot winds. 

395. The cold winds of the north temperate zone are those 
which blow from the north and northeast. In Europe the 
northeast winds are cold, deriving their character from the 
very low temperature which prevails in northern Europe and 
Asia. In the south of Europe the north winds are of great 
violence and severity, owing to the contrast between the 



Questions.— 10 miles per hour. 20 miles per hour. 30 miles per hour. 40 miles per 
hour. 50 miles per hour. 60 miles per hour. 80 miles per hour. 100 miles per hour. 
389. Into what three classes may winds be divided? 390. What are variable- winds? 
Where do ihey prevail ? 391. To what arc they no doubt mainly due ? What has been 
observed respecting them ? What did Franklin observe ? 892. What is the general 
direciion of the winds of Europe in winter? In spring? In summer? In autumn? 
394 What is said of the properties or cenain winds? Of the west winds in Europe? 
Ol thenortheast winds on the Atlantic coast of Ihe United States? How may variable 
winds be subdivided 1 395. What is said of the cold winds of the north temperate zone ? 
Of Ihe northeast winds in Europe ? Of the north winds in the south of Europe 1 



50 



THE ATMOSPHERE. 



snow-covered Alps and the elevated temperature of the Medi- 
terranean. 

396. The bcrra, a northeast wind, so called in Istria and Dalmatia, is some- 
times so furious as to overturn horses at plow. The mistral and the vent 
de bise are winds which prevail in the southeast of France. The mistral 
blows from the northwest, descending from the mountains of central France, 
and sweeping over the ancient provinces of Provence and Languedoc, where 
it is supposed to contribute greatly to the salubrity of the air by dispelling 
the exhalations from the marshes and stagnant waters common in that 
region of extensive levels. It is very fearful in the Gulf of Lyons ; hence 
the name of that gulf, not derived, as commonly imagined, from the city 
of Lyons, hut from the lion-like violence of its tempests. The vent de Use 
(black wind) is a cold, piercing current from the Alps and the mountains 
of Auvergne, which chiefly follows the course of the Rhone, in the valley 
through which it runs, rendering the climate in winter very severe. In 
Spain, a north wind, called the gallego, is of a very formidable character. 

397. Hot and dry winds are very frequent in countries con- 
tiguous to the tropical regions. Large deserts and plains, 
covered with little vegetation, engender very warm winds; 

-these winds, which are of a noxious character, prevail in the 
vast deserts of Asia and Africa, where they show themselves 
in all their force. Nubia, Arabia, Persia, and other parts of 
Asia, are visited by a scorching wind peculiar to the desert. In 
Arabia it is called samoun, from the Arabic samma, which 
signifies hot and poisonous. It is also named samiel, from 
samm, poison. In Egypt it is called chamsin (fifty) because it 
blows for fifty days, from the end of April until June, at the 
commencement of the inundation of the Nile. In the western 
part of the Sahara it is named harmattan. 

398. The simoo?i is announced by the troubled appearance 
of the horizon ; afterward the sky becomes obscured, and the 
sun loses its brilliancy, — paler than the moon, its light no 
longer projects a shadow ; the green of the trees appears of a 
dirty blue, the birds are restless, and the affrighted animals 
wander in all directions. The rapid evaporation occurrino- at 
the surface of the human body dries the skin, inflames the 
throat, accelerates respiration, and causes a violent thirst. The 
water contained in the skins evaporates, and the caravan is a 
prey to all the horrors of thirst. 

399. This hot wind is deleterious in its mild»st forms, occasionally de- 
structive, and many a pilgrim to the shrine of the prophet at Mecca, and 
merchant to the marts of Bagdad, have perished by its noxious, suffocating 
influences. Bruce suffered from it when ascending the Nile, he and his 
company becoming so enervated as to be incapable of pitching their tents, 
oppressed as well by an intolerable headache. ' ' The poisonous simoon," he 
remarks, when at Chendi, ' ' blew as if it came from an oven ; our eyes were 
dim, our lips cracked, our knees tottering, our throats perfectly dry ; and 
no relief was found from drinking an immoderate quantity of water." 

400. "In June, 1813," says Buckhardt, "in going from Siout to Esne, I 
was surprised by the simoon in the plain which separates Furschiout from 
Berdys. When the wind arose I was alone, mounted on my dromedary, 
and at a distance from every tree and habitation. I endeavored to protect 
my face by wrapping it in a handkerchief. Meanwhile the dromedary, 
into whose eyes the wind drove the sand, became restless, commenced gal- 
loping, and caused me to lose the stirrups. I remained lying on the earth 
without moving from the spot, for I could not see to a distance of ten 
metres, and I wrapped myself up in my clothes until the wind had abated. 
I then went in search after my dromedary, which I found at a very great 



Questions.— 396. What is said of the bora? The -mistral t The vent de Use' 897 
Where are hot winds very frequent ? By what name is the burning wind called in 
Arahia ? By what other name is it known ? What is it called in Egypt, and why ? In 
the western part of Sahara ? 898. How is the simoon announced ? How does it affect 
the human body? 399. What further is remarked respecting this hot wind ? How did 
Bruce suffer from it ? 



distance, lying down near a bush that protected his head against the sand 
raised by the wind." 

401. Volney gives the following complete account of the simoon and its 
effects: "Travelers," he states, "have mentioned these winds under the 




STORM IN THE DESERT. 

name of poisonous winds ; or, more correctly, hot winds of the desert. Such, 
in fact, is their quality ; and their heat is sometimes so excessive that it is 
difficult to form an idea of their violence without having experienced it ; 
but it may be compared to the heat of a large oven at the moment of drawing 
out the bread. When these winds begin to blow, the atmosphere assumes 
an alarming aspect. The sky, at other times so clear in this climate, be- 
comes dark and heavy ; the sun loses its splendor, and appears of a violet 
color. The air is not cloudy, but gray and thick ; and is in fact with an 
extremely subtile dust, that penetrates everywhere. 

402. " This wind, always light and rapid, is not at first extremely hot, but 
it increases in heat in proportion as it continues. All animated bodies soon 
discover it by the change it produces in them. The lungs, which a too 
rarefied air no longer expands, are contracted and become painful. Respi- 
ration is short and difficult, the skin parched and dry,' and the body con- 
sumed by an internal heat. In vain is recourse had to large drafts of water ; 
nothing can restore perspiration. In vain is coolness sought for ; all bodies 
in which it is usual to find it deceive the hand that touches them. Marble, 
iron, water, notwithstanding the sun no longer appears, are hot. The streets 
are deserted, and the dead silence of night reigns everywhere. The inhab- 
itants of towns and villages shut themselves up in their houses — and those 
of the deserts in their tents, or in pits they dig in the earth — where they 
wait the termination of this destructive heat. 

403. "It usually lasts three days, but if it exceeds that time it becomes 
insupportable. Woe to the traveler whom this wind surprises remote from 
shelter 1 he must suffer all its dreadful consequences, which sometimes are 
mortal. The danger is most imminent when it blows in squalls, for then 
the rapidity of the wind increases the heat to such a degree as to cause sud- 
den death. This death is a real suffocation ; the lungs, being empty, are 
convulsed ; the circulation disordered, and the whole mass of blood, driven 
by the heat toward the head and breast ; whence that hemorrhage at the 
nose and mouth which happens after death. 

404. "This wind is especially fatal to persons of a plethoric habit, and 
those in whom fatigue has destroyed the tone of the muscles and vessels. 
The corpse remains a long time warm, swells, turns blue, and is easily sep- 
arated ; all of which are signs of that putrid fermentation which takes place 
when the humors become stagnant. These accidents are to be avoided by 
stopping the nose and mouth with handkerchiefs ; an efficacious method is 
also that practiced by the camels, who bury their noses in the sand, and 
keep them there till the squall is over. 

405. " Another quality of this wind is the extreme aridity, which is such 
that water sprinkled upon the floor evaporates in a few minutes. By this 
extreme dryness it withers and strips all the plants, and by exhaling too 



Questions.— What does he say of it ? 4"0. Mention some of the particulars related 
by Buckhardt. 401. What does Volney say respecting these winds? To what dots 
be compare their heat? What is the aspect of the atmosphere during the continuance 
of the simoon ? 402. What changes does it produce on all animate bodies? 403. How 
long does it usually last ? When is the danger most imminent 1 404. To whom is the 
wind especially fatal? 405. What other quality does this wind possess ? Give paniculars. 



PERMANENT WINDS. 



5] 



suddenly the emanations from animal bodies, crisps the skin, closes the 
pores, and causes that feverish heat which is the invariable effect of sup- 
pressed perspiration." 

406. The Harmattan blows from the northeast, over Sene- 
gambia and Guinea, to that part of the coast of Africa lying 
between Cape Verde, in 15° north latitude, to Cape Lopez, in 
1° south latitude, a coast line of upward of two thousand miles. 
It occurs during December, January, and February, generally 
three or four times during that season. It come3 on at any 
hour of the day, at any time of the tide, or at any period of 
the moon, continuing sometimes only a day or two, at other 
times five or six days, and it has been known to last upward 
of a fortnight. 

407. Extreme dryness is the property of this wind ; all veg- 
etation droops and withers, and should the harmattan blow for 
several days, the leaves of the lemon, orange, and lime-trees 
become so parched that they may be readily rubbed into dust. 
Even household furniture cracks, and in many instances flies to 
pieces. Though this wind is so pernicious in its effects upon 
vegetable life, yet it is conducive to the health of the human 
species, by removing dampness from the atmosphere, and coun- 
teracting its eifects after a long rainy season. 

408. The Sirocco is a hot southeast wind, prevailing m the 
Mediterranean, in Itah r , and Sicily, but felt most violently in 
the country around Naples, and at Palermo. It sometimes 
commences about the time of the summer solstice, but blows 
occasionally with great force in the month of July. Though 
usually attributed to the Sahara, it h supposed by some to arise 
on the arid rocks of Sicily ; and hence is far more violent on 
the north than on the south coast of the island, about Palermo, 
and also in the neighborhood of Naples. 

409. It is thus described by a traveler during his stay at Palermo : 

" On Sunday, July 8th, we had the long-expected sirocco wind, which, 
although our expectations had been raised pretty high, yet I own greatly 
exceeded them. Friday and Saturday were uncommonly ccol, the mercury 
never being higher than 724° ; and although the sirocco is said to have set 
in early on Sunday morning, the air in our apartments, which are very 
large, with high ceilings, was not in the least affected by it at eight o'clock, 
when. I rose. I opened the door without having any suspicion of such a 
change ; and indeed I never was more astonished in my life. The first blast 
of it on my face felt like the burning steam from the mouth of an oven. I 
drew hack my head and shut the door, calling out to Fullarton that the 
whole atmosphere was in a flame. However, we ventured to open another 
door that leads to a cool platform, where we usually walk ; this was not ex- 
posed to the wind ; and here I found the heat much more supportable than I 
could have expected from the first specimen I had of it at the other door. It 
felt somewhat like the subterranean sweating-stoves at Naples, but s'ill 
much hotter. In a few minutes we found every fiber greatly relaxed, and 
the pores opened to such a degree, that we expected soon to be thrown into 
a profuse sweat. 

410. "I went to examine the thermometer, and found the air in the room 
as yet so little affected that it stood only at 73°. The preceding night it 
was at 72J°. I took it out to the open air, when it immediately rose to 
110°, and soon after to 112° ; and I am confident that in our old lodgings, 
or anywhere within the city, it must have risen several degrees higher. The 
air was thick and heavy, but the barometer was little affected : it had fallen 
only about a line. The sun did not once appear the whole day, otherwise I 
am persuaded the heat must have been insupportable ; on that side of our 
platform which is exposed to the wind, it was with difficulty we could bear 



Questions.— 406. Describe the Harmattan. When does it occur ? What is said of 
ils irregularity, etc. ? 40T. What is the property of this wind 1 What are its effects 
on bodies ? On the human species ? 403. What is the Sirocco ? When docs it blov/ ? 
Its supposed origin ? 



it for a few minutes. Here I exposed a little pomatum, which was melted 
down as if I had laid it before the fire. I attempted to take a walk in the 
street to see if any creature was stirring, but I found it too much for me, 
and was glad to get up stairs again. This extraordinary heat continued till 
three o'clock in the afternoon, when the wind changed at once almost to 
the opposite point of the Compass. Aft nature languishes under the influ- 
ence of this wind; vegetation droops and withers; the Italians suffering 
from it not less than strangers. When any feeble literary production ap- 
pears, the strongest phrase of disapprobation they can bestow is, ' It was 
written in the time of the sirocco.' " 

411. The deserts of Asia and Africa are the regions in which 
the hot or scorching wiiids prevail ; but in Spain the Salano, 
a wind which is supposed to arise on the plains of Andalusia, 
throws the majority of individuals into a condition of peculiar 
languor. In India, which is covered with a rich vegetation, 
and in Chile, in Louisiana, and in the great level plains {Llanos) 
of the Orinoco, there are certain local winds of a very elevated 
temperature. 



LESSON IV 



PERMANENT WINDS. 



412. The Trade-winds are those permanent breezes which 
prevail within the tropics, and which maintain nearly the same 
direction and rate throughout the year. Their direction is from 
the northeast in the northern hemisphere, and from the south- 
east south, of the line ; but it is more decidedly from the east 
as the equator is approached. They extend generally from 
about 28 J to 30° on each side of the equator, but their limits 
vary considerably as the sun is north or south of the equator; 
their external and internal boundaries are also very different in 
the Atlantic and Indian oceans. It is only over the wide ocean 
that the trade-winds can blow uninterruptedly. Between them 




A CALM AT SEA. 



is a zone styled the Region of Calms, in which thick, foggy air 
prevails, with frequent sudden and copious rains, attended by 
thunder and lightning. 

413. The trade-winds may be thus explained. The regions 
bordering on the equator are the hottest on the earth. In con- 
sequence of rarefaction, the air there ascends and flows over 
the colder masses on either side toward the poles, from which 



Questions.— 411. What is said of the deserts of Asia and Africa? Of the Salnnn? 
Where do other verv warm winds prevail 1 412. What are the trade-winds ? What is 
their direction ? Their limits? What region lies between them ? 413. How may the 
trade-winds be explained ? 



52 



THE ATMOSPHERE. 



a colder atmosphere moves to supply its place. Thus two cur- 
rents are created in each hemisphere, an upper and a lower, 
but flowing in opposite directions. If the earth did not ro- 
tate on its axis, the lower current in the northern hemisphere, 
or the trade- wind, would be from north to south, and in the 
southern hemisphere from south to north. The earth, how- 
ever, rotates from west to east, and the atmosphere surround- 
ing it partakes of this rotary motion ; hence these winds become 
northeast and southeast. 

414. The movements of the trade-winds, and the laws by which they are 
governed, are thus explained by a well-known writer : 

"From the parallel of about 80° north and south, nearly to the equator, 
we have two zones of perpetual winds, viz. : the zone of northeast trades 
on this side, and of southeast ou that. They blow perpetually, and are as 
steady and as constant as the currents of the Mississippi River— always mov- 
ing in the same direction. As these two currents of air are constantly 
flowing from the poles toward the equator, we are safe in assuming that the 
air which they keep in motion must return by some channel to the place 
near the poles, whence it came in order to supply the trades. If this were 
not so, these winds would soon exhaust the polar regions of atmosphere, and 
pile it up about the equator, and then cease to blow for the want of air to 
make more wind of. 

415. "This return current, therefore, must be in the upper regions of the 
atmosphere, at least until it passes over those parallels between which the 
trade-winds are always blowing on the surface. The return current must 
also move in the direction opposite to the direction of that wind which it is 
intended to supply. These direct and counter-currents are also made to 
move in a sort of spiral curve, turning to the west as they go from the poles 
to the equator, and in the opposite direction as they move from the equator 
toward the poles. 

416. " This turning is caused by the rotation of the earth on its axis. The 
earth, we know, moves from west to east. Now if we imagine a particle 
of atmosphere at the north pole, where it is at rest, to be put in motion in 
a straight line toward the equator, we can easily see how this particle of 
air, coming from the pole, where it did not partake of the diurnal motion 
of the earth, would, in consequence of its vis inertia, find, as it travels south, 
the earth slipping under it, as it were, and thus it would appear to be 
coming from the northeast and going toward the southwest : in other words, 
it would be a northeast wind. 

417. "On the other hand, we can perceive how a like particle of atmo- 
sphere that starts from the equator, to take the place of the other at the 
pole, would, as it travels north, in consequence of its vis inertia, be going 
Toward the east faster than the earth. It would therefore appear to be 
blowing from the southwest, and going toward the northeast, and exactly 
in the opposite direction to the other. Writing south for north, the same 
takes place between the south pole and the equator. Now this is the pro- 
cess which is exactly going on in Nature ; and if we take the motions of 
these two particles as the type of the motion of all, we shall have an illus- 
tration of the great currents in the air, the equator being near one of the 
nodes,- - and there being two systems of currents — an upper and an under — 
oetween it and each pole. 

4! 8. "Let us return now to our northern particle, and follow it in around 
from the north pole tc the equator and back again, supposing it, for the 
present, to turn back toward the pole after reaching the equator. Setting 
off from the polar regions, this particle of air, for some reason which does 
not appear to have been satisfactorily explained by philosophers, travels in 
the upper regions of the atmosphere, until it gets near the parallel of 3(P. 
Here it meets, also in the clouds, the hypothetical particle that is going 
from the equator to take its place toward the pole. 

419. "About this parallel ot 30°, then, these two particles meet, press 

Questions.— Hi. Where have we two zones of perpetual wimls? What are we safe in 
assuming? Why? 415. Where must this return current be? Which way do the direct 
and counter-currents turn ? 416. How is this turning caused ? Explain. 417. Explain 
the direction of the return current. 418. Describe the course of a particle of atmosphere 
proceeding from the polar regions toward the equator. What does it meet near the 
parallel of S0O? 419. What results foliow ? What surface currents are here ejected? 
420. From what part of the calm region do these winds come, and what consequendy may 

be inferred? 

* Nodes, the point where the ascending and descending currents cross each other. 



against each other with the whole amount of their motive power, produce a 
calm and an accumulation of atmosphere sufficient to balance the pressure 
from the two winds north and south. From under this bank of calms two 
surface currents of wind are ejected ; one toward the equator, as the north- 
east trades— the other toward the poles, as the southwest passage winds — 
supposing that we are now considering what takes place in the northern 
hemisphere only. 

420. " These winds come out at the lower surface of the calm region, and 
consequently the place of the air borne away in this manner must be sup- 
plied, we may infer by downward currents from the superincumbent air 

.of the calm region. Like the case of a vessel of water which has two 
streams from opposite directions running in at the top and two of equal 
capacity discharging in opposite directions at the bottom— the motion of the 
water in the vessel would be downward : so is the motion of air in this calm 
zone. The barometer, in this calm region, is said by Humboldt and others 
to stand higher than it decs cither to the north or to the south of it; and 
this is another proof as to the banking up here of the atmosphere and 
pressure from its downward motion. 

421. "Following our imaginary particle of air from the north across this 
calm belt, we now feel it moving on the surface of the earth as the northeast 
trade-wind, and as snch it continues till it arrives near the equator, where 
it meets a like hypothetical particle, which has blown as the southwest 
trade-wind." [The writer here proceeds upon the supposition that the air 
from the polar region descending at the calm belt uniformly passes to its 
equatorial side, and so enters the trade-wind region. It is proper to ob- 
serve, however, that among a majority of scientific men the evidence that 
this is the case is deemed inconclusive ; although the probability that 
such is its frequent course is by no means disproved.] ' ' Here, at this 
equatorial place of meeting, there is another conflict of winds, and an- 
other calm region, for a northeast and southeast wind can not blow at the 
same time in the same place. The two particles have been put in motion 
by the same power ; they meet with equal force, and therefore, at their 
place of meeting, are stopped in their course. Here, therefore, there is also 
a calm belt. 

422. " Warmed by the heat of the sun, and pressed on each side by the 
whole force of the northeast and southeast trades, these two hypothetical 
particles, taken as the type of the whole, ascend. This operation is the re- 
verse of that which took place at the other meeting near the parallel of 30°. 
This imaginary particle now returns to the upper regions of the atmosphere 
again, and travels there until it meets, near the calm belt of Cancer, its 
fellow-particle from the north, where it descends as before, and continues to 
flow toward the pole as a surface wind from the southwest." [Here, again, 
the writer proceeds upon the supposition that the descending particle of air 
crosses the calm belt, and continues its course on the opposite side — a theory 
regarded as resting upon an uncertain basis. 

423. The general circulation of the atmosphere which manifests itself thus 
uniformly in the torrid regions and with less constancy in the temperate, 
has been a subject of profound scientific investigation. The laws which 
govern it are complex and obscure ; but it is believed that the daily in- 
creasing observations, especially those in the higher latitudes, will throw 
light upon the subject, and in process of time will unravel its most perplex- 
ing mysteries. 

424. Nothing excited the wonder of the early navigators so much as the 
trade-winds which blow regularly within the tropics. The companions 
of Columbus were terrified when they found themselves driven on by con- 
tinuous easterly breezes, which seemed to forewarn them that they would 
never return to their country. Fortunately for the fame of the great navi- 
gator, and for the world, he firmly held on his course, and made the discov- 
ery of a new continent. 

425. The trade-winds serve important uses to navigators, in facilitating 
the passage of ships round the world. In passing from the Canaries to 
Cumana, on the north coast of South America, it is scarcely ever necessary 

Questions. — Illustrate the downward motion of the air in this calm zone. What is 
another proof of the banking up here of the atmosphere and pressure from its downward 
motion ? 421. Where is the particle of air supposed to move after leaving the calm 
belt ? What occurs at the equatorial place of meeting ? 422. Why docs it here ascend ? 
Describe its track as it returns toward the pole. 428. Investigation of the general circu- 
lation of the atmosphere? Laws which govern it, and prospect of a future explanation 
of the subject? 424. Wonder of the early navigators ? The companions of Columbus ? 
425. Uses of the trade-winds? Illus'rate. Koute of an outward and return voyage from 
New York to Canton " 



PERIODICAL WINDS. 



53 



to touch the sails of a ship ; and with equal facility a passage is made across 
Ihe Pacific, from Acapulco, on the west coast of Mexico, to the Philippine 
Islands. Ihe customary route of vessels. on their outward voyage from New 
York to Canton is by the way of Cape Horn, and thence westwardly through 
the Pacific : the return voyage is by the way of the Cape of Good Hope. If 
a channel were cut through the Isthmus of Panama, the voyage to China 




CAPE HORN. 

would be more speedy, agreeable, and safe than the usual route by Capo 
Horn. 

426. All mariners and passengers have spoken with delight of the region 
of the trade-winds. It is noted for the favoring gales, the transparent at- 
mosphere, the splendid sunsets, and the brilliancy of the unclouded heavens, 
day and night . Columbus, in recording his first voyage into their territory, 
compares the air, soft and refreshing without being cool, to that of the pure 
and balmy April mornings he had experienced in Andalusia. Humboldt, in 
describing the tropical regions, remarks upon the mildness of the climate 
and the beauty of the southern sky. He observed stars seen from infancy 
progressively sinking and finally disappearing below the horizon, an un- 
known firmament unfolding its aspect, and scattered nebute rivaling in 
splendor the milky way. The Spaniards gave to the zone in which the 
trade-winds are constant the title el Golpo de las Damns, the Sea of the Ladies, 
on account of the ease with which it may be navigated, the uniform tem- 
perature prevalent night and day, and its pacific aspect. 



LESSON V. 

PERIODICAL WINDS. 

427. Periodical winds are those which regularly prevail at 
a certain time of the year or of the clay. The monsoons of the 
Indian Ocean, the Etesian winds of the Mediterranean, and the 
land and sea breezes, are of this class. 

428. Ifonsoons, from the Malay word moussin, signifying 
" a season," are regular periodical winds which sweep over the 
Indian Ocean and the whole of Hindoostan, changing their 
direction after an interval of about six months, as the sun 
moves into the northern or southern hemispheres ; hence the 
term season winds, or monsoons. These winds are a modifica- 
tion of the trade-winds, occasioned by the position of the sun 
in different seasons, the openings in the chain of islands sep- 
arating the Indian Ocean from the Pacific, the interposition 
of the Asiatic continent, and the rarefied atmosphere of Africa 
and Australia. 

429. From 3° south of the equator to the northern shores of 
the Indian Ocean, including the Arabian Sea, the Bay of Ben- 
gal, and the Chinese Sea, a southwest wind prevails during most 
of the season, from April to October, after which a northeast 
wind sets in, and prevails through most of the remaining half 
of the year, from October to April. While the wind north of 
the equator is southwest, a southeast wind prevails between 



Questions.— 426. For "what is the region if the trade-winds noted? 427. What are 
periodical winds? Name those which belong to this class. 42 3 . What are monsoons? 
From what is the term derived ? What is said of these winds ? 429. What are the 
limits of the region having a southwest wind from April to October? 



3° and 10° south of the line; and when the wind north of the 
equator is northeast, that south of it is northwest. 

430. The western boundary of the region of the monsoons is 
the African shore ; its eastern limit is supposed to be about the 
meridian of 150° east longitude; its northern confine is near 
the parallel of 27" north latitude ; its southern extremity has 
been already stated. The monsoons are much stronger than 
the trade-winds, and may be called gales ; they sometimes blow 
with such violence that ships are obliged to reef their sails. 
They are not confined to the ocean, but extend over the whole 
of Hindoostan to the Himalaya Mountains. 

431. Mr. Caunter, a resident of Madras, gives the following interesting 
account of a storm which occurred there during the shifting of these 
winds : 

"On the 15th of October the flag-staff was struck, as a signal for all ves- 
sels to leave the roads, lest they should be overtaken by the monsoon. On 
that very morning some premonitory symptoms of the approaching war 
of elements had appeared. As the house we occupied overlooked the beach, 
we could behold the setting in of the monsoon in all its grand and terrific 
sublimity. The wind, with a force which nothing could resist, bent the 
tufted heads of the tall, slim cocoa-nut trees almost to the earth, flinging 
the light sand into the air in eddying vortices, until the rain had either so 
increased its gravity or beaten i; into a mass, as to prevent the wind from 
raising it. 

432. "The pale lightning streamed from the clouds in broad sheets 
of flame, which appeared to encircle the heavens as if every element had 
been converted into fire, and the world was on ihe eve of a general confla- 
gration ; while the peal, which instantly followed, was like the explosion 
of a gunpowder magazine. The heavens seemed to be one vast reservoir 
of flame, which was propelled from its voluminous bed by some invisible 
but omnipotent agency, and threatened to fling its fiery ruin upon every- 
thing around. In some parts, however, of the pitchy vapor, by which the 
skies were by this time completely overspread, the lightning was seen only 
occasionally to glimmer in faint streaks of light, as if struggling, but un- 
able, to escape from its prison — igniting, but too weak to burst, the impervious 
bosoms of those capacious magazines ia which it was at onee engendered 
and pent up. 

433. ''So heavy and continuous was the rain, that scarcely anything save 
those vivid bursts of light, which nothing could arrest or resist, was per- 
ceptible through it. The thunder was so painfully loud that it frequently 
caused the ear to throb ; it seemed as if mines were momentarily springing 
in the heavens, and I could almost fancy that one of the sublimest fictions 
of heathen fable was realized at this moment before ine, and that I was 
hearing an assault of the Titans. The surf was raised by the wind and 
scattered in thin billows of foam over the esplanade, which was com- 
pletely powdered with the white, feathery spray. It extended several 
hundred yards from the beach ; fish, upward of three inches long, were 
found upon the flat roofs of houses in the town during the prevalence of 
the monsoon— either blown from the sea by the violence of the gales, or 
taken up in the water-spouts, which are very prevalent in this tempest- 
uous season. 

434 "When these burst, whatever they contain is frequently home by 
the sweeping blast to a considerable distance over-land, and deposited in 
the most uncongenial situations ; so that now, during the violence of these 
tropical storms, fish are found alive on the tops of houses ; nor is this any 
longer a matter of surprise to the established resident in India, who sees 
every year a repetition of this singular phenomenon. During the extreme 
violence of the storm, the heat was occasionally almost beyond endurance, 
particularly after the first day or two, when the wind would at intervals en- 
tirely subside, so that not a breath of air could be felt, and the punka 
afforded but a partial relief to that distressing sensation which is caused by 
the oppressive stillness of the air so well known in India." 

435. The monsoons are of great assistance to commerce ; by 



Questions.— What wind prevails in this region from October to April? Describe the 
v inds which prevail at different season* between 8° and 10° south of the line. 480. 
What is the western boundary of the region of monsoons ? Its eastern limit ? Its 
northern ? Its southern ? Intensity of the monsoons ? 485. Uses of monsoons ? 



THE ATMOSPHERE. 




PERIODICAL WINDS. 



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them a ship is frequently wafted to a distant port, and aided in 
returning by a monsoon blowing in an opposite direction to that 
which carried her out. 

436. The Etesian winds* are periodical winds which blow 
from the northeast for about six weeks throughout the Medi- 
terranean, particularly the Levant, where they commence to- 
ward the middle of July, about nine in the morning, and continue 
only throughout the day. The immense desert of Sahara, south 
of the Mediterranean, deprived of water, and composed of sand 
and flints, becomes very highly heated under the influence of 
an almost vertical sun, and currents are created from the 
colder atmosphere of the north. Hence the passage from Eu- 
rope to Africa in summer is much quicker than the autumn. 
Periodical currents, called no?-tes, or north-winds, blow from 
September to March in the Gulf of Mexico. They occur also on 
the Brazil coast, from N. E. in the spring, and S. E. in autumn. 

437. Land and sea breezes are supposed to be caused by the 
unequal heating of the land and sea. On the coasts and islands 
within the tropics, a breeze from the sea daily occurs about 
nine o'clock in the morning — at first blowing gently toward 
the shore, but gradually increasing in force till the middle of 
the day, when it becomes a brisk gale; r.fter two or three 
o'clock it begins to subside, and is succeeded at evening by a 
breeze from the land, which blows freshly from off the coast 
during the night, and dies away in the morning when the sea- 
breeze commences. 

438. These breezes are particularly strong along the coast 
of Malabar, where it is said that their influence is felt 60 miles 
from land. They are also very perceptible in the Mediterra- 
nean and in the East and West India Islands. The regular 
inland breezes experienced in the morning and evening, in some 
situations, are produced by changes in the density of the atmo- 
sphere, affected by the radiating properties of neighboring 
snow-clad mountains, marshes, or sandy deserts. 

439. The Zone of Culms, represented on the map, has a breadth of about 
G°, but varies with the seasons from 9° to 10°. It is frequently interrupted 
by violent storms. "When the vessel on its voyage to the south approaches 
the equator in the midst of the Atlantic Ocean, anxious fear seizes the crew. 
Sooner or later, according to the time of year, the favoring wind which had 
brought them thus far, becomes weaker and weaker ; at first it ceases for a 
little while, and at last drops entirely. Around extends the sea, an endless 
glassy surface. The ship, hitherto speeding onward with a bird-like flight, 
lies bound on the crystal fluid. The rays of the sun, falling perpendicularly, 
glow through and through the narrow space in which the men are inclosed. 
The deck burns through the soles of the shoes. A stifling vapor fills the 
cabins. A fortnight has the ruler of the sea lain immovable in the same 
spot. The store of water is exhausted. Glowing thirst glues the parched 
tongue to the palate. Each man looks upon his companion in suffering with 
the wild, murderous glance of despair. 

440. " The sun sinks below the horizon, the evening sky is illumined by 
a peculiar coppery redness ; and with the advancing night arises a black 
wall to the eastward; a low, shrill pipe resounds from the distance, from 
whence a streak of foam advances over the black ocean. The ship sways 
and rocks upon the irregular waves, but the sail still hangs against the mast, 
flapping dismally upon the spars. Suddenly the storm bursts over with ; 
frightful roar ; with a shriek the sails are torn asunder, and fly in ribbons ! 
A loud crack ! a second, and the mainmast goes overboard ! By a violent 
effort the crew succeed in cutting through the remaining ropes, and the ship 

Questions —136. What are the Etesian winds? Explain how they are caused. When 
and where do the nortes blow ? 487. How are land and sea- breezes supposed to be 
caused? Describe them. 483. Where do these breezes prevail ? How are regular inland 
breezes produced ? 439. How wide is the Zone of (.'alms ? 

* "Eros, a year, a season 



56 



THE ATMOSPHERE. 



now flies over the ocean — now borne high upon the backs of the waves — now 
hurled down into the depths, so that every seam cracks and groans as though 
it would part asunder. The thunder rolls unceasingly ; continuous light- 
ning darts through the agitated atmosphere ; the rain falls in streams in- 
stead of drops. Ten times the sailors give themselves up for lost, when the 
quaking bark falls into the trough of the sea, and as many times does it rise 
over the waves again. 

441. "At last the storm lulls; single shocks follow, always at longer 
intervals ; the waves become smoother, and when the consoling sun rises 
in the east, it illuminates the same dreary picture as on the former day. 
Mirror-like the endless surface again expands, and in eight days is the 
store of collected water exhausted ; and again the silent specters creep 
about and turn murderous looks upon each other. A new storm, and a new 
calm, and so in frightful alternation, until at last the ship is driven into 
the region of the peaceful trade-wind on the other side of the equator. 
Hundreds of ships have gone down in storms here ; hundreds lost their 
crews by the most frightful of deaths, — that of thirst ; and those who 
have passed the fearful region of calms, turn in earnest worship to Heaven 
with thanks for their new- won life."* 



LESSON VI. 

HURRICANES. 



442. The terms hurricane, whirlwind, water-spot, land-spout, 
sand-pillar, tornado, white squall, pampero, etc., have been ap- 




plied to rotary movements of the atmosphere in different parts 
of the world. 

443. Hurricanes are revolving storms which occur chiefly in 
the West Indies and in the Indian Ocean. Of a similar kind 
are the typhoons in the China Sea. These circulating move- 
ments occupy a space from 50 to 500 miles in diameter. They 
revolve the more rapidly the nearer the center, up to a certain 
distance, within tohich there is a calm. 

444. The center of rotation advances steadily along a defi- 
nite line upon the globe, with a velocity varying from 2 to 30 
or 40 miles per hour. It is a remarkable fact,; that in the same 
hemisphere these whirling storms always revolve the same 
way, but that this direction is' opposite in opposite hemi- 
spheres. In the northern hemisphere their rotation is retro- 
grade, or in a direction opposite to the hands of a watch. In 



Questions.— 412. What terms have been applied to the rotary movenwnts of the atmo- 
sphere ? 143. What are hurricanes ? What space do these circulating movements oc- 
cupy ? Where do they revolve the more rapidly ? 444. What is the velocity of the center 
of rotation? What is a remarkable faet? What is the rotation of the storms in the 
northern hemisphere? In the southern hemisphere? 445. Which are the three well- 
tnown hurricane regions? 



* Scbleiden's " Lecture about the Weather." 



the southern hemisphere their rotation is direct, conform able 
to the hands of a watch. 

445 There are three well-known hurricane regions — the 
"West Indies, the Indian Ocean, and the China Sea. The 
general course of the West Indian hurricanes is from the 
Leeward Islands N. W., passing around the shores of the Gulf 
of Mexico or across it, then following the Gulf Stream and 
terminating in the Atlantic, or exhausting their fury in the 
United States. From October 3, 1780, to August 25, 1837, 
inclusive, 38 hurricanes occurred in this region in the following 
months: in June, 1; July, 4; August, 13; September, 10; 
October, 8 ; exclusive of two, the months of which have not 
been recorded. Thus they are very rare in June, and most 
frequent in August. The only instance in June occurred in 
1831, when Trinidad, Tobago, and Grenada were devastated, 
before supposed to be exempt, from hurricanes. 

446. The hurricanes of the Indian Ocean come from the 
N. E., near Sumatra and Java, and travel to the S. W. toward 
Rodriguez and the Mauritius. They occur chiefly from De- 
cember to April, the hot season in that hemisphere ; are very 
rare in November and May; and are quite unknown during 
the other months of the year. 

447. In the China Sea, hurricanes, there styled typhoons, 
range from 10° to 30° N. They occur from June to November, 
after an interval of three or four years. 



Note.- — The map>-questions relative to " Winds" on page 55, 
should receive attention before proceeding with the next lesson. 



LESSON VII. 

MOISTURE. 



448. If we place a vessel of water in the open air on a warm 
day, the quantity of the fluid will soon be sensibly diminished, 




or evaporated, being converted by the heat into invisible vapor, 
and diffused through the air. In like manner evaporation 
transpires upon a grand scale from the great collections of 
water on the earth's surface, the oceans, lakes, and rivers, as 
well as from moist ground. It is subject to diurnal and annual 
variations. 

449. The quantity of vapor diffused through the air is least 
in the morning before sunrise. As the temperature rises with 
the ascent of the sun, evaporation increases. The heat of mid- 

QueMons.— What is the general course of the West Indian hurricanes? When aro 
hurricanes in this region most rare, and when most frequent? 446. Describe the hurri- 
canes of 'he Indian Ocean. When do they chiefly occur? 44T. What is said of the ty- 
phoons? When and how o'ten do they occur? 448. What will happen if we place a 
vessel of water in the open air on a warm day? Where does evaporation transpire on a 
grand scale? 449. When is the quantity of vapor diffused through the air the least? 
When does evaporation increase? What does ihe heat of mid-day cau-c? In what 
month is the quantity of vapor at ita minimum, and in what at its maximum? 



CLOUDS. 



57 



day causes the vapors to vise into the upper regions, and hence 
the greatest degree of dryness is generally felt dining the 
daytime, though evaporation is then going on most rapidly. 
In January the quantity cf vapor, like the mean temperature 
of the air, is at its minimum : it increases from that period, 
a:id in July attains its maximum ; it then decreases to the end 
of the year. 

450. The moisture in the atmosphere is an element on which 
the life of plants and animals as much depends as on tempera- 
ture. The healthfulness of climate is greatly influenced by the 
dryness or humidity of the atmosphere. As resulting from the 
action of heat on water, the quantity of vapor diminishes with 
the temperature from the equator to the poles. It decreases 
also as we pass from coasts into the interior of continents. 
This rule is confirmed in the interior of the United States, in 
the middle of the plains of the Orinoco, in the steppes of Si- 
beria, the deserts of Asia and Africa, and the central parts 
of Australia. In the temperate zone, in general, the annual 
evaporation is estimated at between 36 and 37 inches of water. 
In the torrid zone, at Guadaloupe, it has been found to amount 
to 97 inches, and at Cumana to 100 inches. 

451. The air is only capable of receiving a certain quantity 
of vapor. Its capacity depends upon its temperature, and is 
invariable in its extent at the same temperature. According to 
Professor Leslie, air at the freezing point is capable of holding 
moisture equal to the 160th part of its own weight; at the 
temperature of 59°, the 80th part; at that of 86°, the 40th 
part ; at 113°, the 20th part ; and at that of 140°, the 10th part. 

452. When a volume of air contains as much aqueous vapor 
as at its particular temperature it is capable of receiving, it is 
then said to be at the point of saturation, being as humid as 
can be. If the temperature then rises, it will be capable of re- 
ceiving more ; but if it falls, some of the contained vapor will 
be rejected, and become visible as mist. Thus the effect of a 
change of temperature upon a saturated volume of air is anal- 
ogous to that of the hand relaxing or tightening its grasjD on 
a piece of imbibing sponge. 

453. It has been frequently observed that the summits of 
some mountains are constantly covered with clouds. The 
formation of such clouds may be thus explained : The winds, 
laden with vapor from lower and warmer districts, in passing 
over such ranges are forced up into a colder region, where 
they are obliged to part with a portion of the vapor, which 
thus forms a cloudy state of the atmosphere. 

454. Mists and fogs are formed when the air is saturated, 
and generally when the moist soil, or the water of lakes and 
rivers is warmer than the air, the vapors of which are imme- 
diately condensed. In like manner the vapor of the air breathed 
from our mouths in winter becomes condensed and visible. 
Mists differ in no respect from clouds except in position, being 
on the surface of the earth, instead of being suspended at a 
height in the atmosphere. 

455. The thick mists which prevail in the neighborhood of Newfoundland 



Questions. — 450. Whnt is said of the moisture in the atmosphere ? now does the quan- 
tity of vapor diminish ? Annual evaporation in the temperate zone? In the torrid zone? 
451. What is said of the capacity of air for receiving vapor? Upon what does it depend ? 
Give it-* capacity at different states of temperature. 452. When is a volume of air said to 
be at the point of saturation ? 453. What has been frequently observed? Flow may the 
formation of such clouds be explained ? 454. When are mists and fogs formed ? IIow do 
mists differ from clouds? 



arise from the warm waters of the Gulf Stream, which flow to that locality, 
the temperature of which is much higher than that of the saturated air. 




MOUNT EREBUS. 

456. Soon after sunset, in calm and clear weather, mists are frequently 
formed over the beds of lakes and rivers, while the adjacent land is free 
from them. This arises from the land more rapidly losing its heat by ra- 
diation than the lake or river. The air over the land necessarily becomes 
the coldest ; and when the situation of the ground is such as to bring the 
cold air of the land over the warmer water, a fog confined to its expanse 
ensues. 

457. Dew is formed by the gradual condensation of the va- 
pors of the atmosphere. After sunset in summer, when the 
great diurnal evaporation has filled the air with moisture, and 
the earth is gradually cooled by radiation under a clear sky, 
the atmosphere in contact with the surface is chilled, and has 
its capacity to retain the aqueous vapors lessened, which are 
gradually and gently deposited in the form of fluid drops, 
called dew. In some countries dew supplies the place of rain. 
In Palestine and western Asia in general, where showers are 
unknown for several months in succession, the dew formed at 
night moistens the earth and sustains the vegetation, being 
often so abundant as completely to saturate the tents, baggage, 
and clothing of travelers exposed to it. 

458. As all objects have not the same capacity for radiating 
i heat, some cooling much more rapidly than others, we fre- 
quently find certain bodies densely covered with dew, as grass 
and leaves, while the bare grounds, metals, stones, and wood 
are comparatively dry. A thermometer laid on a grass-plot on 
a cloudless night has been upward of 16° lower than another 
laid at the same time on a gravel walk. Hence there has been 
a much more copious deposition of dew on the grass than on 
the walk, — the herbs needing the nourishment thus receiving 
it in preference to the bare soil — a striking evidence of an all- 
wise Being operating in the economy of nature.* 



LESSON VIIT 

CLOUDS. 



459. Clouds are masses of visible vapor like mists, floating 
in the atmosphere at a distance from the surface of the earth. 



Questions.— 455. Origin of the mists which prevail in the neighborhood of Newfound- 
land? 456. Explain why mi3ls are frequeully formed over the beds of lakes and rivers 
while the adjacent land is free from them. 457. IIow is dew formed ? Explain particularly 
the operation of its formalion. What is said of the dews of Palestine and western Asia ? 
45S. Why do.s dew collect more on some bodies than others? 450. What are clouds? 

What is said ofthem? 

* Rev. Thomas Milner. 



58 



Til E . A T M O S P H E R E . 



They exhibit an endlessly diversified outline, a remarkably 
varying density, and appear at different elevations. The dense 







1, 1. Cirrus. 3. Cumulus. 5. Stratus. 2 2. Cirro-Cumulus. 4. Nimbus. 

clouds are usually formed toward noon, when the vapors are 
raised up by the ascending currents of air, and then condensed 
by the lower temperature of the upper regions. 

460. Though clouds are generally composed of vapor, they 
may consist of frozen particles. In winter, during severe cold, 
wo can often observe that the vapors which rise are com- 
posed of brilliant needles, that glisten in the sun and resemble 
small flakes of snow. The same thing must take place in the 
higher regions of the atmosphere. There exist, therefore, snow- 
clouds and clouds of vapor of water. 

461. Notwithstanding the varied aspect of clouds, they may 
be arranged into three princiD.il classes — the cirrus, the cumu- 
lus, and the stratus. 

462. Cirrus — Curlcloud. Fig. 1. — The cirrus (the cafs-tail 
of sailors) is composed of thin filaments, variously disposed, in 
the form of woolly hair, a crest of feathers, or slender net-work. 
The cirri appear in the higher regions of the atmosphere, and 
are the most elevated of the clouds. Viewed from the sum- 
mits of high mountains, while the traveler looks down upon 
other forms of clouds, he beholds these still above him, and 
apparently at as great a distance as when seen from the plains. 
The appearance of true cirrus, or curlcloud, is supposed to 
indicate variable weather ; when most conspicuous and abun- 
dant, to presage high winds and rain ; and when the streaming 

Qti ntkfim.— 460. Of what ore clouds composed ? What two kinds ? 461. Into what three 
principal classes may clouds be arranged ? 462. Describe the cirrus or curlcloud. What 
is said of the height of the cirri ? What is the cirrus supposed to indicate ? 463. Describe 
the cumulus or siackeneloud. Of what does it consist? 



fibers have pointed in a particular direction for any length 
of time, the gale may be expected to blow from that quarter. 

463. Cumulus — Stackeucloud. Fig. 3. — This form of cloud 
{ball of cotton of sailors) occurs in the lower regions of the 
atmosphere, and is easily recognized. It is commonly under 
the control of the surface winds, and frequently exhibits a very 
magnificent appearance. It consists of a vast hemispherical or 
conical heap of vapor rising gradually from an irregular hori- 
zontal base and increasing upward. Hence the names cumulus, 
a pile or heap, and stackencloud, a number of detached clouds 
stacked into one large and elevated pile. 

464. Cumuli are indications of fine weather. They begin to 
form soon after sunrise from irregular and scattered specks of 
cloud ; as the morning advances the clouds enlarge ; and early 
in the afternoon, when the temperature of the day is at its max- 
imum, the cumulus attains its greatest magnitude. The cloud 
decreases as the sun declines, and is usually broken up toward 
sunset. The cumulus may be called the cloud of day, from the 
interval between morning and evening generally measuring the 
term of its existence. Its appearance considerably varies in the 
detail, and often exhibits a brilliant silvery light, and a copper 
tinge, when in opposition to the sun, indicating a highly elec- 
trical condition of the atmosphere. 

465. Stratus — Fallcloud. Fig. 5. — This cloud consists of 
horizontal bands near the surface of the earth. It belongs 
to the night, forming at sunset and disappearing at sunrise. 
This class of clouds comprehends all those fogs and creeping 
mists which sometimes spread like a mantle over the surface 
of the valleys, plains, lakes, and rivers. 

466. To the above primary varieties three transition or com- 
posite forms are added. Cirrocumulus — Sondercloud. Fig. 2. 
This name designates the feathery accumulated cloud, famil- 
iarly known as fleecy, intermediate between cirrus and cumulus. 




NIGHT SCENE, TICO.NDEEOGA. 

It consists of small patches, arranged in extensive beds, the 
component parts being quite distinct or asunder. Cirrostratus 

Questions. — 464. What do enmu'i indicate ? Describe their successive changes during 
the day. 4G5. Cf what docs the stratU3 or fallcloud consist? When does it prevail ? What 
does this class of clouds comprehend ? 466. Describe the cirrocumu'us or sondercloud. 
What other composite forms are mentioned ? 



RAIjST. 



59 



— Wanecloud and Cumulostratus — Ticaincloud (not repre- 
sented in the cut), are combinations, — the former of the cirrus 
and stratus, and the latter of the cumulus and stratus. 

467. Nimbus — Haincloud. Fig. 4. — Any of the preceding 
modifications may pass over into the actual rainy clouds, first 
exhibiting a great increase of density, and a bluish-black tone 
of color, then putting on a lighter shade, or gray obscurity, and 
becoming fringed at the edges. 

468. Clouds are generally higher within the tropics than in 
the temperate zones ; and in the temperate zones they are 
commonly higher in summer than in winter. The cirri are 
the highest clouds. They are supposed to range from three 
to five miles above the level of the earth. Kaemtz states that 
during a stay of eleven weeks within sight of the Finsteraar- 
horn, upward of 14,000 feet high, he never obsjrved any 
cirri below the summit of the mountain. It is highly probable 
that they consist of flakes of snow. 



LESSON IX. 

BAIN". 

469. Rain is water, which, originally taken up into the at- 
mosphere in the state of vapor, is returned to the earth in the 
form of liquid drops. It is produced by the continued con- 
densation of vapor. Rain may begin to fall, and yet not reach 
the ground, being resolved into invisible vapor on arriving at 
strata of air removed from the point of saturation. For the 
same reason, rain-drops may become smaller in their descent, a 
portion being evaporated, and less rain arrive at the earth's 
surface than at a certain height above it. Usually the drops 
increase in their fall, bringing with them the low temperature 
of the upper regions. 

470. The following are examples of very extraordinary showers : 
1822. — Oct. 25, at Genoa, 30 inches of rain fell in 24 hours. 
1827. — May 27, at Geneva, there fell 6 inches of rain in 3 hours. 

1841. — June 4, at Cuiseaux, a small town in the valley of the Saone, there 
fell about 11 inches in 68 hours. 

At Cayenne, Admiral Roussin collected 10 inches in 10 hours. 

471. Rain is very unequally distributed over the regions of 
the globe. 1. The average annual quantity of rain is the great- 
est in tropical climates, and diminishes as we recede from the 
equator to the poles. 2. It decreases as we pass from maritime 
to inland countries, because the land supplies a less quantity of 
vapor than the sea. 3. More rain falls in mountainous than in 
low level districts, lofty heights arresting the clouds, and pro- 
moting the condensation of vapor by their cold summits. 4. 
The result of experiment shows that a greater amount of rain 
falls while the sun is below than when above the horizon. 

472. The diminution of the average annual quantity of rain from the 
equator to the poles, appears from the following table : 

San Luis de Maranhao lat. 3° S. is equal to 276 inches. 

Parimaribo, Guiana " 6° N. " 229 " 

Question*. — 407. Change to the nimbus or rain-cloud? 46$. What is the comparative 
height of clouds in different zones and seasons ? Ht-ight of the cirri V What does Kaemtz 
state? 469. What is rain? How produced ? 470. Give examples of very extraordinary 
showers. 471. Wh;it is said of die urn qual distribution of rain? Wbere is the average 
annual qnanlily the greatest? Where does it decrease ? What is observed of mountainous 
districts? What does the result of experiment tbow ? 472. What is ihe annual quantity 
of rain in different places? The annual quantity within the Tropics of the Old World? 
Of the New World? Average for the Tropics generally? Annual quantity in the 
Temperate Zones of the New World ? 



Sierre Leone, Guinea. lat. 9° N. is equal to 189 inches. 

Island of Grenada, West Indies . . "12= " 108 " 

Havana, Cuba "23° " 90 " 

Calcutta " 22° " 81 " 

Macao, China "22° " 68 " 

Charleston, South Carolina " 330 " 47 " 

Rome "42° " 39 " 

Edinbtirg "55° " 24 " 

St. Petersburg "60° " 17 " 

Uleaborg, Finland " 65° " 13 " 

Annual quantity of rain within the tropics of the New World. . 115 inches. 

Annual quantity within the tropics of the Old World. . . , 76 " 

Average for the tropics generally 951 " 

Annual quantity of rain in the temperate zones of the New 

World (United States) 37 

In the temperate zones of the Old World (Europe) 31| " 

Temperate zones generally 34| " 

473. Although the amount of rain is greater within the tropics than in 
the temperate zones, yet the number of rainy days is less, because two sea- 
sons divide the year — wet and dry ; and during the dry season entire month3 
frequently pass away without a drop falling or a cloud being seen. In the 
temperate zones, also, in passing from the tropics to the polar circles, the 
number of rainy days increases, although the intensity of rain diminishes. 

Annual number of rainy days in North of Syria 54 

" " " Straits of Gibraltar 68 

" " " Plains of Lombardy 90 

" " " Buda. Hungary 112 

" " " Plains of Germany 141 

" " " England and West France 152 

Poland 158 

" " St. Petersburg 169 

" " Netherlands 170 

East of Ireland 208 




APPROACHING STORM. SAMERO LIGHT — ENTRANCE TO HALIFAX HARBOR. 

474. Countries situated in the vicinity of the sea receive, as we have re- 
marked, a larger amount of rain than those inland. This is exemplified in 
the interior of the United States, of the Llanos of the Orinoco, of the Sibe- 
rian steppes, of Australia, and on comparing the amount of precipitation in 
inland and maritime countries. It declines from an annual fall of between 
30 and 35 inches on the shores of Great Britain and France to from 15 to 
13 inches as the borders of Asia are approached. Mountains produce 
several exceptions to this rule. The annual number of rainy days de- 
creases also with the increased distance from the sea. 

West coast of France 152 days. 

Interior of France , 14i 

Kasan, Plains of the Volga 90 

Interior of Siberia CO 

475. The annual fall of rain in mountainous districts, as compared with 
thatof low and level countries, is sometimes very striking. At Keswick— 
a mountainous district in England -the annual average depth of rain is 67 

Questions.— In the Temperate Zones of the Old World? In the Temperate Zones 
general y? 473. Wht-re is the number of rainy cava less than in the Tempenite 
Zones, and why ? What is observed in pissing from the Tropics to the polar circles ? 
State the annual number of rainy days in different places? 474. What is said of coun- 
tries situati-d in the viciidty of Ihe sea? How is this exemplified? Wilh what does 
the annual number of rainy days decrease? Illustrate. 475. What facts illiterate 
the difference between monntdnous districts and low and level countries wilh re- 
spect to the fall of rain? What is remarked of the description of Judea by the sacred 
writer ? 



60 



THE ATMOSPHERE. 



inches, while on the sea-coast it is not half that amount. On the Great St. 
Bernard it is 63 inches, and at Paris only 21. "The description of Judea 
by the sacred writer, contrasting it with the flat lands of Egypt, though 
not intended to be philosophic, is in harmony with the teachings of science 
respecting the important p.vrt performed by mountains in the general econ- 
omy of the earth : 'For the land whither thou goest in to possess it, is not 
as the land of Egypt, from whence ye came out ; but the land whither ye go 
to possess it, is a land of hills and valleys, and drinketh water of the rain 
of heaven.' By arresting the course of the clouds, and producing a con- 
densation of aqueous vapor when a warm current of air lights upon their 
cold summits, the elevations contribute to precipitate the moisture of the 
atmosphere, often amid a terrible display of electric phenomena — a blaze 
of fiery horrors, and the echo of heart-thrilling sounds.'"- 

476. In some portions of the world rain is entirely unknown, 
oi occurs so seldom as to be quite a phenomenon. The rainless 
or nearly rainless regions of the New World comprise por- 
tions of California and Arizona, of the Mexican table-land, and 
of Guatemala, also the coast region of Peru and Bolivia, and 
much of Patagonia east of the Andes. Those of the Old 
World comprehend an immense territory, stretching from 
Morocco, through the Sahara, a part of Egypt, Arabia, and 
Persia, into BeloocListan, with another great zone, commenc- 
ing north of the Hindoo-Koosh and Himalayas, including the 
table-land of Tibet, the desert of Gobi, and a portion of 
Mongolia. 

477. The rains of most tropical countries are periodical, — 
seasons of extreme humidity regularly alternating with those 
of excessive drought. The length of time of the rainy season 
differs in different districts, but lasts generally from three to 
five months. The periodical rains commence in Panama, on 
the west coast of America, in the early part of March ; in 
Africa, near the equator, and on the banks of the Orinoco, they 
begin in April ; in the countries watered by the Senegal, and 
at San Bias, in California, they begin in June. The violence 
of these tropical showers may be inferred from the large annual 
amount of rain, and from its fall being limited to a few months, 
and to a few hours during the day. The drops are enormous, 
very close together, and fall with such rapidity as to occasion a 
sensation of pain if they strike against the skin. 

478. Jn both continents the districts which have their periodical rains 
are subject to an occasional intermission, and become rainless for con- 
siderable intervals, the drought inflicting terrible suffering on man and 
beast. Such a period happened between the years 1827 and 1830 in the 
state of Buenos AyreB, and is known by the name of the gran seco, or the 
great drought. This interval was very destructive to animals. The loss 
of cattle in the province of Buenos Ayres alone was estimated at one 
million head. Cattle in herds of thousands rushed into the Parana, and 
being exhausted by hunger, they were unable to crawl up the muddy 
banks, and thus were drowned. 



LESSON X, 

SNOW AND HAIL. 



479. Snow is vapor somewhat condensed, and congealed 
before it collects in drain-drops. Snow-flakes exhibit forms 

Questions. — 476. What do the rainless or nearly rainless regions of the New World 
comprise ? What, those of the Old World ? 4T7. What is said of the rains ot most tropical 
countries? Length of the rainy seasons? When do they commence at Panama, etc. ? 
Violence of these tropical showers? 478. To what ar • the rainless districts of both conti- 
nents subject? Example? Destruction of cattle ? 479. What is snow ? 



* liev. Thomas Milner. 



of exquisite beauty, regularity, and endless variety. These 
varied shapes are assumed while the body passes from the 
vapor form to the solid state. The tendency of vapor to crys- 
tallize, while in the process of congelation, may be observed in 
frost as it collects on the window-panes in winter. 

480. A microscope applied to a flake of snow which has fallen 
in a still atmosphere will unfold its wonderful mode of struc- 
ture. It is only in the polar regions that snow assumes its 
most beautiful and varied forms. Captain Scoresby has figured 
ninety-six different varieties, which he discovered during his 
arctic voyages, .and which he distributed into classes of la- 
mellar,* spicular,| and pyramidal crystals, as shown in the 




VARIOUS FORMS OF SNOW CRYSTALS. 



above representation. It will be seen that the annexed forms 
are mostly hexagonal^ stars, and consequently snow-flakes 
belong to the hexagonal system of crystals. Kaemtz observes 
that flakes which fall at the same time have generally the 
same form ; but if there is an interval between two consecu- 
tive falls of snow, the forms of the second are observed to 
differ from those of the first, although always alike among 
themselves. 

481. The limits of the fall of snow at the level of the sea, in 
the northern hemisphere, are about the parallel of 30° in Amer- 

Questiovs. — What do snow-flakes exhibit? Where are these varied forms assumed ? 
4S0. In what region does snow assume its most varied forms? How many varieties discov- 
ered by Captain Scoresby, and how distributed ? What does Kaetnlz observe? 4S1. Limit 
of the fall of snow in America ? In the center of the North Atlantic ? In the Old World ? 



* Lamellae, composed of thin pla'es or scales. t Spioular, resembling a durt. 

t Hexagonal, having six aides and angles. 



CLIMATE. 



61 



ica, which cuts the southern part of the United States ; 43° in 
the center of the North Atlantic ; and 36° in the Old "World, 
the latitude of Algiers. But for several degrees above these 
limits its appearance is rare and brief. 

482. Snow performs an important part in the general economy 
of nature. In winter it serves as a mantle to keep the ground 
warm, and thus protect vegetation from being destroyed by 
the frost, or by cold biting winds. Accumulated on elevated 
mountain chains, it affords, by its thawing, a regular supply to 
rivers and to the interior reservoirs of the earth, while in low 
latitudes it tempers the heat of warm regions. 

4S3. Hail appears to be partly the result of intense cold 
rapidly produced in the atmosphere ; it is supposed to be also 
somewhat dependent upon electricity, which is almost always 
powerfully developed during hail-storms. In very high lati- 
tudes it is unknown, and it is also rare at the level of the sea 
within the tropics. The icy particles which fall vary in shape 
and size. True hail is an opaque mass, and has generally the 
form of a pear, or of a mushroom; large hailstones are sur- 
rounded by a thick coat of ice, and are composed of alternate 
layers of snow and ice. No one has ever seen hailstones 
formed entirely of transparent ice. 

484. Many instances are well authenticated of halftones having a circum- 
ference of from G to 9 inches, and a weight of from 12 to 14 ounces ; but 
much 1-irger massea are recorded. June 15, 1829, the hail heat in the roofs 
of the houses at Cazorta, in Spain, — some of the hailstones weighing up- 
ward of 4 lbs. avoirdupois. In Hungary, May 8, 1H32, a block of ice fell, 
about 39 inches in breadth and length, and 21 inches in depth. Mr. Dar- 
win mentions a fill of hail in the state of liuenos Ayres which killed a large 
number of wild animals, ostriches, and smaller birds. These enormous 




SNOW STOEM. 



masses are either the fragments of a thick sheet of ice suddenly formed, 
and broken in the atmosphere in falling, or are due to the union of a great 
number of hailstones in their descent. 



Note. — The map-questions on pages 63 and 64 should re- 
ceive attention before proceeding with the following lesson. 



Question*.— 4S2. What are some of the uses of snow ? 4SS. Of what does hail appear 
to he the result ? Upon what is it supposed to be also somewhat dependent ? Where is it 
unknown and where rare ? Appearance of true hail ? 484. Size of some hailstones ob- 
served ? Examples of destructive effects of hail ? What is remarked of these enormous 
masses 1 4SP. What is said of climate ' What does the term climate commonly deuote ? 
Taken in its more genera! sense, what does it signify? 



LESSON XI. 

CLIMATE. 

485. Climate, in its relation to animal and vegetable exist- 
ence, constitutes one of the most interesting and important 
subjects belonging to physical geography. The term, as it is 
commonly understood, denotes the temperature of the air in 
the various regions of the globe ; but taken in its more general 
sense, it signifies all those states and changes of the atmosphere 
which sensibly affect our organs, — temperature, humidity, va- 
riation of atmospheric pressure, the purity of the atmosphere, 
or its admixture with more or less deleterious exhalations, and 
lastly, the degree of habitual transparency of the air and 
serenity of the sky, which has an important influence on the 
feelings and the whole mental disposition of man. 

486. Climate is determined by a variety of causes, the chief 
of which are: 1. The latitude of a country; that is, its geo- 
graphical position with reference to the equator.. 2. Elevation 
of the land above the sea-level. 3. The proximity to, or re- 
moteness of a country from, the sea. 4. The slope of a country, 
or the aspect it presents to the sun's course. 5. The position 
and direction of mountain chains. 6. The nature of the soil. 
7. The degree of cultivation and improvement at which the 
country has arrived. 8. The prevalent winds. 9. The annual 
quantity of rain that falls in a country. 

487. (1) The latitude of a country, and the consequent 
direction in which the solar rays fall upon its surface, are the 
principal causes of the temperature to which it is subject. At 
the equator, and within the tropics, the greatest heat is ex- 
perienced ; because the sun is always vertical to some place 
within those limits, and the solar action is more intense in pro- 
portion as the rays are perpendicular to the earth. As we re- 
cede from the equator, they fall more obliquely ; and because 
fewer of them are spread over a larger space, they are less 
powerful, or, in other words, less heating. It has been calcu- 
lated that, out of 10,000 rays falling upon the earth's atmosphere, 
8,123 arrive at a given point if they come perpendicularly; 
7,024, if the angle of direction is 50° ; 2,821, if it is 7 ; and 
only 5 if the direction is horizontal. 

488. The latitude of a place is therefore of the first import- 
ance in determining its temperature, since a decrease of heat 
takes place with an increase of latitude as we travel, at the 
same level above the sea, from the equator toward the poles. 
This is true of countries lying between the tropics and the 
poles, but it is not true of places situated between the tropics 
and the equator. 

489. "If the ecliptic, as shown on a terrestrial globe, be examined, it 
will be seen that toward the northern and southern limits, for a consider- 
able distance, it neither approaches nor recedes from the equator or the 
pole, but has a direction due east and west. This ecliptic is, in point 
of fact, the path or the point of direct heat and sunlight over the earth's 

[Continued on Tage 64.] 



Questions.- 4S&. What are the principal causes which determine climate? 487. What 
principally determine the temperature of a country? Why is the greatest heat expe- 
rienced within the tropics ? What happens as wo recede fiom the equa'or? 4s8. Why 
is the latitude of a place of the first importance in determining its temperature ? Is 
this true of countries lying between the tropics? 489. Explain why a greater degree 
of heat prevails at the tropics than at the equator. 



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surface. Thus, then, it appears that when this point has 
readied its nearest approach to either pole, it does not at once 
turn back toward the other pole, but remains at that nearest 
distance for a considerable time ; or, as it were, lingers thnre. 
It has been calculated, that if the" space between the tropics 
he imagined to be divided into three equal bands of the earth, 
the point of direct sunlight would be found to linger in each 
of the two outer bands 3J times as long as in the middle 
band. 

490. "This lingering of the point of direct heat and sun- 
light at its nearest approach to the poles, is a necessary result 
of that simple and admirable provision by which the earth is 
made to revolve round the sun, rotating at the same time 
round an axis which has an inclined position, and which pre- 
serves its parallelism. The object of it is obviously to min- 
ister to the polar regions, in their due proportion, light and 
heat. ' ' ° 

491. In the northern hemisphere, the countries 
where the greatest heat is experienced — the banks 
of the Senegal, the Tehama of Arabia, and Mekran 
in Beloochistan — coincide with the Tropic of Can- 
cer; and it has been found that the snow-line of 
the Andes, in 17° south latitude, is higher than at 
the equator — an evidence of a higher tempera- 
ture. 

492. (2) The temperature of countries is largely 
affected by the extent of their elevation above the 
level of the sea. As we ascend in the atmosphere 
the cold increases, — an effect due to the rarefaction 
of the air, and to the circumstance of being far- 
ther from the heat reflected from the surface of the 
earth. We may travel several hundred miles from 
the equator toward the poles, along the level sur- 
face of the earth, before we become sensible of a 
diminished temperature ; but the moment we begin 
to increase our elevation, a rapid change of temper- 
ature is experienced, until we arrive at a pioint where 
constant frost prevails. 




P0T0SI IN THE ANDES (ELEVATION 13,350 FEET).f 

Question!;. — 490. What is said of the lingering of the point of direct 
light and heat at the tropics ? What is obviously ils object? 491. What 
is said of the countries in the northern hemisphere where the greatest 
heat is experienced ? 492. By what else is the temperature of countries 
largely affected ? What occurs as we ascend in the atmosphere, and 
why? State the difference, as affectins climate, between traveling on . 
the surface of the earth, from the equ:itor toward the poles, and increas- 
ing our elevation. 

* Professor Moseley's " A stro-Theology." 
t See paragraphs 69 and 70. 



CLIMATE. 



Go 



493. The ratio of the diminution of temperature usually 
given, is 1° for 300 feet of height; 2° for 595 feet; 3° for 
872 feet; 4° for 1,124 feet; 5° for 1,347 feet ; and 6° for 1,539 
feet. In the temperate zone generally, if one site is a thou- 
sand yards higher than another adjoining, it will have a cli- 
mate 12° colder ; and the higher the latitude the lower the 
snow-line becomes, till it meets the surface of the earth in 
the frigid zone. The following diagram represents the line 




Height in Feet 




Surface of the Earth. 0° 10 20 30° 40° 50° 60° 70° 80 

of perpetual snow forming the arc of an ellipsoid passing over 
the equator, from pole to pole. Making allowance for the fact 
that the snow-line of the Andes is higher at some distance 
from the equator, the diagram should not exhibit a continuous 
curvature, but be corrected as follows : 

re- 




surface of the Earth. 



20 30 40 50 BO 70 SO 



494. From this effect of elevation upon temperature, it is obvious that 
the mountainous regions of the torrid zone have great varieties of climate. 
The hot regions, tierras calientes, of Mexico include the country along the 
eastern and western shores under the elevation of two thousand feet, where 
the mean temperature is about 77°, and sugar, indigo, cotton, and bananas 
flourish luxuriantly. Above these are the temperate regions, tierras templa- 
das, which lie along the slopes of the mountains at an elevation of from 2,000 
to 5,000 feet. Here the yellow fever, the scourge of the low grounds, is 
unknown ; and the mean heat of the year is from 08° to 70°. The traveler 
enjoys a genial air, and encounters the oaks, cypresses, pines, tree-ferns, and 
the cultivated grains of the United States. Still higher are the cold re- 
gions, tierras frias, which include the table-lands and the mountains above 
5,000 feet. On the borders of this zone the climate is still pleasant, but 
beyond the elevation of 8,000 feet it becomes severe, and gradually assumes 
the character of polar latitudes. 

495. Switzerland, from similar causes, exhibits a variety of climates. In 
the narrow and deep valley of the Valais may be found great extremes 
of climate,— the cold of Iceland and the heat of a Sicilian summer. Yines 
grow to the height of 2,380 feet abo-ve the level of the sea ; trees to 6,700 
feet; shrubs to 8,500; a few plants to 10,600, beyond which are a few 
lichens; and the vegetation ceases entirely at the height of 11,000 feet, 
amid Arctic cold. 

496. The following is the extreme line of elevation above the level of the 
sea observed here of individual classes of vegetation : 

Feet. Feet. 

Maize 2,772 The cherry 4,270 

The oak 3,518 Potato 4,450 

The nut 4,500 

The beech 4,800 

Mountain maple. . 5,100 

497. Etna is divided into three districts, each of which has a climate very 
different from either of the others. They are called La Regions Oatta, or the 
the fertile region; La Regione Sylvosa, the woody region; and La Regione 
Deserta, the barren region. The productions of these districts are as diverse 
from each other as are those of the three zones of the earth. 



Question*. — 498. What la the ratio of the diminution of temperature for different heights ? 
Wh;it i9 remarked of the effect of elevation in the temperate zone ? 494. What is obvious 
from this effect of elevation upon temperature ? Describe the hot regions, tierras cali- 
entes, of Mexico. The temperate regions, tierras templadas. The cold regions, tierras 
frias. 495. What may be found in the valley of the Valais. Switzerland ? What are the 
heights to which different kinds of vegetation grow there? 495. What is the extreme line 
above the sea-level reached by certain classes of plants? 497. How is Etna divided? 
What are the districts called, and what is said of tlieir productions ? 



The walnut 3,620 

The yew 3,740 

Barley 4,180 



Feet. 
The silver birch . . 5,500 

The larch 6,000 

The fir le sapin. . . 6,300 
Pinus cembra. . . . 6,600 
Rhododendron... 7,400 



498. The Island of Teneriffe, with its celebrated Peak, presents another 
illustration of the effect of elevation on climate. The Peak, which rises to 
the height of 12,176 feet, has several zones of vegetation, arranged one 
above another, extending through a perpendicular elevation of 11,190 feet, 
to which vegetation ascends in that tropical latitude. The region of Vines 
rises from the level of the sea to a height varying from 1,200 to 2,000 feet. 
In this zone the date-tree flourishes, the sugar-cane, the plantain, the Indian 
fig, the olive, wheat, and the fruit-trees of Europe. The region of Laurels 
includes the woody part of Teneriffe, in which hardy species of trees, as 
the oak, the laurel, etc., abound. Next comes the region of Pines, filled 
with trees resembling the Scotch fir. Higher still may be found species 
of grasses which reach nearly to the line of perpetual snow. 

499. The delightful climate of the valleys of Cashmere, and of portions 
of Hindoostan lying on the declivities of the Himalaya Mountains, is owing 
to the elevations of those regions above the level of the sea. In these 
districts, as well as on the table-land between the eastern and western 
Ghauts, the temperature throughout the year is that of perpetual spring. 
The inhabitants of Quito, at an elevation of 9,540 feet, experience a genial 
and almost invariable climate, in which vegetation never ceases, while on 
the one hand, they behold the mountain ridges covered with perpetual 
snow, and at the distance of a few leagues an intense and sickly degree 
of heat oppresses the plains and lower levels. 



LESSON XIL 

CLIMATE— (continued). 

500. (3) The nearness to, or remoteness of a country from, 
the sea, is an important element in determining its climate. 
The ocean preserves a much more uniform temperature than 
the land, far lower than its extreme of heat, and higher than 
its extreme cold. The winds that sweep over it have this 
character to some extent impressed upon them, and communi- 
cate it to the countries over which they range. Hence islands 
and maritime districts have milder climates than inland regions 
under the same parallel of latitude, the currents from the ocean 
tempering their summer heat, and moderating their winter 
cold. 

501. London, though situated in a higher latitude, enjoys 
a milder winter and cooler summer than Paris. The winters 
and summers of Ireland are much more temperate than those 
of any other country under the same parallel. A gradual in- 
crease of cold is experienced in proceeding from Western 
Europe in an easterly direction. At Dublin the mean annual 
temperature is 49.05, while that of Warsaw, in the same lati- 
tude, is 44.15 ; thus it is nearly 5° colder at Warsaw than at 
Dublin. Again, it is 6|° colder at Moscow than at Copen- 
hagen, though they are equidistant from the equator. 

502. America has a colder climate than corresponding latitudes in the 
Eastern Hemisphere. With reference to this, Humboldt advances the fol- 
lowing statement: "The comparative narrowness of this continent,— its 
elongation toward the icy poles, — the ocean, whose unbroken surface is 
swept by the trade-winds, — the currents of extremely cold water which flow 
from the Straits of Magellan to Peru, — the numerous chains of mountains 
abounding in the sources of rivers, and whose summits, covered with snow, 
rise far above the region of the clouds, — the great number of immense 



Questions.— 498. What is said ofthe zones of vegetation on the Peak of Teneriffe ? De- 
scribe the region of Vines. Of Laurels. Of Pines. 499. Climate of Cashmere and portions 
of Hindoostan ? Quito? 500. What is the third cause which affects climate? What is 
said of the ocean ? Climate of islands and maritime districts? 501. Comparative climate 
of London and Paris ? Ireland? What is experienced in proceeding from Western Eu- 
rope in an easterly direction ? How much colder is it at Warsaw than at Dublin ? At 
Moscow than at Copenhagen? 502. How does the climate of America compare with that 
of the Eastern Hemisphere ? Give the substance of Humboldt's statement. 



GO 



THE ATMOSPHERE. 



rivers that, after innumerable courses, always tend to the most distant 
shores, — deserts, but not of sand, and consequently less susceptible of being 
impregnated with heat,— impenetrable forests, that spread over the plains 
of the equator, abounding - in rivers ; and which, in those parts of the coun- 
try that are the farthest distant from mountains and from the ocean, give 
rise to enormous masses of water, which are either attracted by them, or are 
formed during these acts of vegetation ; all these causes produce, in the 
lower parts of America, a climate which, from its coolness and humidity, is 
singularly contrasted with that of Africa. To these causes alone must we 
ascribe that abundant vegetation, so vigorous and so rich in juices, and that 
thick ana umbrageous foliage, which constitute the characteristic features 
of the new continent." 

503. (4) The slope of a country, or the aspect it presents to 
tue sun's course, has an important influence on its climate. The 
angle at which the sun's rays strike the ground, and conse- 
quently the power of those rays in heating it, varies with the 
exposure of the soil relatively to that luminary. The irregular 
surface of the earth, — sunk into deep valleys in some parts, and 
raised into table-lands and mountains in others, with slopes at 
all possible angles with the general level, — presents every 
variety so far as the greater or less obliquity of the sun's rays 
is concerned. 

504. The effect of aspect is, of course, most strikingly seen in regions cov- 
ered with high mountains. " Under a vertical sun, the sides of the Andes 
receive the sun's rays as obliquely as they fall in our latitudes upon the 
earth's level surface, — nay, as obliquely, perhaps, as they fall in summer 
upon the level surface of the snows of Spitsbergen ; while the Alps encounter 
on parts of their southern slopes as direct a heat as that which burns up the 
desert of Sahara ; and on their northern they are as much hidden from the 
sun's influence as are the level snows of Lapland. 

f>05. " In the Alps of the Valais, on the one side you may see the vine in 
luxuriant growth, when the other is thick ribbed with ice. Thus, too, the 
terraces and sloping plains which descend from the vast table-land of cen- 
tral Asia, where, ■ inclining from its northern limit, they pass into the 
steppes of Siberia, present, under the latitude of Edinburg, a cold intense 
enough to freeze mercury ; while upon the southern terraces of the opposite 
Himalaya slope, flourish, at different elevations, the pineapple, the mango, 
the gigantic cotton-tree, and the saul. This tropical vegetation ascends 
there to an altitude of four or five thousand feet ; mingling itself, and by 
degrees giving way to the plants of a temperate region, — elms, willows, 
roses, and violets, destined in their turn, at a yet higher region, to yield to 
Alpine forms of vegetable lit e. " a 

506. (5) The position and direction of mountain chains. — 
Mountains affect climate in more ways than one. They con- 
dense the vapors of the atmosphere, and thus give rise to those 
violent rains which are so often experienced in the neighbor- 
hood of lofty ranges. At Bergen, in Norway, there fall an- 
nually 8S£ inches of water, which is more than at any other 
city in Europe ; this is because the clouds from the Atlantic 
are driven forward by the southwest winds into the fiords, 
where they are arrested by the mountains, and accumulated, 
and the water (as it were) mechanically squeezed out of them. 

507. Mountains also afford shelter from the winds, while the 
absence of them often expose regions to the chilling blasts 
of the north or the burning winds of the south. One reason 
why the central and southern parts of European Russia are 
exposed to a greater degree of cold than their latitude would 
lead us to expect, is the absence of any chain of mountains to 



Questions.— 508. What is the fourth cause which determines the climate of a country 1 
What is said of the irregular surface of Die earth ? 504. When is the effect of aspect mo:t 
strikingly seen? 505. How is the effect of aspect exhibited in the Alps? On the table- 
lands of central Asia. 506. What is the flfih cause which affects climate ? 



* Professor Mosehy's "Astro-Theology." 



protect them from the full influence of the winds blowing from 
the White Sea and Ural Mountains. The inhospitable climate 




STEPPES OE SOUTHERN RTSSIA. 

of Siberia arises from its descent toward the north, exposing 
it to the winds of the Frozen Ocean ; while, at the same time, 
vast mountain chains that cross central Asia intercept the 
southern winds, whose access would tend to mitigate the rigor 
of the atmosphere. 

508. (6) Another cause which affects climate is the nature 
of the soil. One soil acquires heat, keeps its acquired heat 
much longer, or radiates it more readily than another. All 
the varieties of soil, — light and open, vegetable molds, gravelly 
and rocky tracts, stiff, wet clays, and sandy plains, — have, it 
can not be questioned, their different powers of radiation and 
absorption ; and whether a district be clay or sand, bare or 
covered with vegetation, for a like cause, greatly affects its 
temperature. The differences of surface so observable in vari- 
ous kinds of foliage, — their darker or lighter colors, their more 
or less glossy leaves, — are all circumstances which affect the 
radiation of theii heat with an infinite variation. 

509. Thus clayey or marshy grounds lower the temperature, 
and, especially in hot and humid climates, affect the atmo- 
sphere in a manner pernicious to health. On the other hand, 
those which are light, stony, or calcareous, tend to make the 
atmosphere salubrious. The great cold and the unwholesome 
air that prevail in the Russian governments of Astrakan and 
Orenburg, lying to the north of the Caspian Sea, are attributed 
partly to the saline nature of the soil ; and it is well known 
that the arid tracts of land in Africa and Arabia conduce not a 
little to the excess of heat under which those countries labor. 

510. (V) The degree of cultivation and improvement at which 
a country has arrived. — The clearing of forests, the draining 
of swamps and marshes, the cultivation of the soil, etc., are 
among the operations of man by which the climate of a country 
is greatly modified and improved. The clearing of a country 
from trees has the effect of raising the mean annual tempera- 
ture, but at the same time greater extremes of heat and cold 
are introduced. Open grounds are always frozen deeper than 
woodlands, but the latter retain the snow and ice of winter 
to a much later period in the spring than the former. In 
the cleared portions of North America, the winters are known 
to be much less severe now than formerly, when woods spread 
over a greater part of the country. There is little doubt 



Questions.— How do mountains eouse ruin ? Annual fill of rain at Bergen V How ac- 
counted for? 507. What is another way in which mounlains influence climate? How 
illustrated in the case of the climate of southern Russia 1 From what does the inhospit- 
able climate of Siberia arise ? 5:'lS. What is the sixth cause which affects etimate ? Dif- 
ferent varieties of soil ? 509. effect of different kinds of ground on temperature? Illus- 
trate. 510. Seventh cause wiiich affects climate? Effect of clearing a country from trees? 



CLIMATE. 



67 



that many parts of Europe enjoy a milder climate now than 
they did in the time of the Romans, or even at periods much 
more recent. 

511. (8) The prevalent winds of a country constitute another 
cause which affects its climate. This is obvious enough from 
what has been said in the lessons on Winds, from which we 
learn that the character of a wind depends upon the region 
whence it comes. In the United States the winds from the 
north are usually noted for their coolness, a property they de- 
rive in the frozen regions of Hudson and Baffin bays, while 
those from the south, coming from the Gulf of Mexico, impart 
a mildness throughout the whole country. The comparatively 
mild climate of the British Isles is owing to the prevalence 
of westerly winds which are warmed by sweejsing over the 
region of the Gulf Stream. In Venezuela, the temperature, 
which is from 87° to 90° in March, rises to 104° or 105° when- 
ever the wind blows from the parched surface of the llanos or 
great plains. 

512. (9) TJie annual quantity of rain that falls in a country 
considerably affects its climate by imparting a greater or less 
degree of humidity or dampness to the atmosphere. In general, 
more rain falls in islands and on sea-coasts than in inland dis- 
tricts — among mountains than in level regions, and within the 
tropics than in the other zones : the great heat which prevails 
in the equatorial regions causes the amount of evaporation to 
be much greater than in higher latitudes, and hence the atmo- 
sphere becomes loaded with a greater quantity of moisture. 



of summer are greater than at Cairo, and the winters as rigor- 
ous as at Upsal. 

516. The following tabic gives the difference in the mean temperature 
of the coldest and warmest months at different places : 



LESSON XIII. 

CLIMATE— (continued). 

513. Ik almost all northern latitudes, January and February 
are the coldest months of the year, and July and August the 
warmest. The greatest cold during the day is usually about an 
hour before sunrise. The greatest heat in latitudes between 
35° and 60° is from two to three o'clock p.m., and from one to 
two o'clock, between the equator and 35° 

514. The mean temperature of different months, in various 
places, takes a very wide range above and below the mean an- 
nual temperature. An " excessive" climate is where the con- 
trast between the winter and summer temperature is very 
great. Such climates are chiefly found in north and eastern 
Europe, in Asia and America. 

515. The climates of the Atlantic region of the United 
States, and of the northern part of China, are among the most 
" excessive," the winters and summers strongly contrasting in 
their temperature. New York has the summer of Rome, and 
the winter of Copenhagen. At Quebec, grapes sometimes 
ripen in the open air, whereas the winter is that of St. Peters- 
burg, daring which the snow lies from three to five feet deep 
for several months. At Pekin, in China, the scorching heats 

Quest'ona.— 511. Eighth cause which affects climate? The north winds of the United 
States? The south winds? The comparatively mild climate of the British Isles, to what 
owing? How is the temperature affected by certain winds in Venezuela? 512. Ninth 
cause which affects climate ? Where does the most rain fall ? 513. Which are the coldest 
months in almost all northern latitudes? Which, the warmest? When is the greatest 
cold during the day ? 



Places. 


Latitude. 


Coldest 


Warmest 


Dilt'er- 


















Cnmana 


10° 27' 


80.1° 


84.4° 


4.3° 


Uninterrupted trade-winds. 




11 


55 


76.1 


91.4 


15.8 


Monsoons. Eadiation of sands. 


Manilla. . 


14 
19 


86 
11 


6S.0 
70.0 


86.9 
81.7 


18.9 
11.7 




Vera Cruz 


North winds in winter. 


Cape Erancais 


19 


4ft. 


77.0 


86 


09.0 


Uninterrupted trade-winds. 




m 


10 


70.0 


83.8 


13.8 


North wii.ds in winter. 




82 


87 


64.0 


75.6 


11.6 


Insular climate. 




81 
89 


28 
06 


46.9 
29.6 


78.8 
74.4 


81.9 
44.S 


Interior region, 
do. do. 


Cincinnati 


Pekin 


89 


5+ 


24.8 


84.2 


59.4 


I Pesiion of eastern Asia. 




39 


56 


29.8 


77.0 


47.2 


, Easieru America coast. 


New York 


411 


40 


25.8 


80.8 


55.5 


do. do. do. 




41 


58 


42.1 


77.0 


84.9 


Sou'hern Europe. 


Milan. 


45 

4T 
48 


2S 
29 
50 


33.8 
27.6 
35.1 


55.2 
71.6 
69.8 


24.4 
43.9 
84.7 




Buda 






: Nearer (he western coast. 




47 
60 


13 

07 


39.0 
24.2 


70.0 
61.8 


31.0 
37.6 




Upsal .. 


1 North Europe. 




46 
58 
55 


04 
21 
5S 


14.0 
87.6 
38 3 


73.4 
60.3 
59.4 


59.4 
22.7 
21.1 








Edinburg 


do. do. 




52 


14 


27.1 


70.3 


43.2 


Interior land. 


St. Petersburg ... 


59 


SB 


08.6 


65.7 


57.1 


I Northern Europe. 




71 


00 


22.1 


46.6 


24.5 


Climate of coasts and is'ands. 



517. Isothermal lines (signifying lines of equal heat) are 
those drawn over places which have the same, or nearly the 
same, annual temperature. These lines do not coincide with 
the parallels for the reason that there are other causes besides 
solar action which influence climate, as explained in the last two 
lessons. The meteorological map shows, by the use of isother- 
mal lines, those regions which have the same, or nearly the 
same, temperature. The figures attached to each curve indi- 
cate the mean annual temperature of the region traversed by it. 

518. In the northern hemisphere, the curve line on the map, indicating 
the mean annual temperature of 80°, crosses Central America about the 




>S>S ■>- 



SCENERT ON THE BORDER OF HONDURAS. 

Gulf of Honduras, passes south of St. Domingo, descending across the At- 
lantic to the west coast of Africa, which it cuts near Sierra Leone. It rises 
on that continent, and after crossing the Red Sea and Arabia, it returns 



<?;ies«<™s.-When, the greatest heat ? 514. What is said of the mean temperature 
of different months in various places? What is an "excessive" climate? Where are 
"excessive" climates chiefly found? 515. What regions are subject to the most "ex- 
cessive" climates? What examples are mentioned? 517. What are isothermal lines? 
Why do not these lines coincide with the parallels ? 518. What regions are crossed by 
the i=otherni of S0°? 



fi8 



THE ATMOSPHERE. 



toward the equator, traversing the southern part of Hindoostan, and the 
northern part of the peninsula of Malacca. 

519. The Warmth Equator shows the district of the greatest heat, which 
have temperatures varying from 81° to 88°. It does not coincide with the 
geographical, but lies mostly to the north of that line, attaining its great- 
est distance in eastern Africa and in the Indian Ocean. 

520. The isothermal line of 7(P crosses northern Mexico and the peninsula 
of Florida, its course in America being nearly coincident with the parallel 
of 28°. It reaches the coast .of Africa above the Canary Islands, ascends to- 
ward Tunis about latitude 34P, runs through the Mediterranean south 
of Candia, enters Syria north of Eeyroot, traverses Asia south of the Hindoo- 
Koosh and Himalaya mountains, and descends in China to the tropic. This 
line marks the north boundary of the warm zone, and is generally the 
southern limit of the fall of snow at the sea-level. 

521. The isothermal line of 50°, central to the temperate zone, passes the 
mouth of the Columbia Kiver, on the west coast of America, latitude 46°, 
descends in the interior, and reaches the shores of the Atlantic near New 
York, latitude 41°. It then rises abruptly to latitude 56° in the north 
Atlantic, descends by Dublin, London, and through midland Europe to the 
mouth of the Danube, latitude.45°, cuts the north of the Black and Caspian 
seas, falls in the interior of Asia, rising on the eastern coast. 

522. The isothermal line of 30°, indicating an average temperature below 
the freezing-point, leaves the west coast of America in latitude Gl°, rises 
and declines in the interior, falling to latitude 53° on the shores of Labra- 
dor. It then ascends abruptly to latitude 74° in the Arctic Ocean, and 
passing around the North Cape of Europe, as abruptly descends to latitude 
50' J in the interior of Asia. This line marks the southern limit of perma- 
nently frozen ground, which, in Asia, occurs in a latitude as low as that 
of L 'ndon. 

523. The isothermal lines indicating a lower degree of temperature can 
only be traced with certainty through portions of their course. That of 20° 
appears to descend from the mouth of the Mackenzie Eiver, latitude 68° to 
latitude 59° on the coast of Labrador. From thence it rises to latitude 77°, 
cutting the south of Spitzbergen, and falls in Asia to latitude 56°. The 
isothermal line of 10° passes to the north of Hudson Bay in America, and 
of Yakutsk in Asia. 

524. The western part of Europe lias much greater warmth 
than corresponding latitudes in eastern America, as is indicated 
by the convexity of the isothermal lines about the meridian 
of Greenwich. This is due to a variety of causes. 1. The 
prevailing winds being from the southwest, come from the 
equatorial districts, and partially bear the heat of the tropics to 
the shores of Europe. 2. The warm waters of the Gulf Stream, 
which sweep across the Atlantic to the neighborhood of Eu- 
rope, elevate the temperature of the coasts that are washed by 
them. 3. The Gulf Stream, it is true, runs along the east coast 
of America from Florida to Cape Hatteras, but the current is 
there very narrow, and the prevailing winds carry the warm 
superincumbent air away from the shore. On the other hand, 
a sea current comes down from the Arctic Ocean to the coasts 
of Labrador and Newfoundland, and is traceable some distance 
southward between the Gulf Stream and the coast, which con- 
tributes to depress the temperature by its cold waters, but 
chiefly by the floating icebergs that descend with it as far as 
Newfoundland, and in some cases even below this latitude. 

525. With reference to climate and productions, the globe 
maybe divided into the following regions, — the hot, warm, tem- 
perate, cold, and frigid. 

526. The Hot Regions occupy a zone extending on each side 

Questions.— 619. What does Hie Warmth Equator show ? On which side or the equator 
does it mostly lie, and where does it attain its greatest distance 1 520. Describe the 
course of the isothermal line of 70°. What does this line mark ? 621. Describe the course 
of the isothermal line of 50°. £22. The isothermal line of 30°. What does this line mark? 
523. What is said of the isothermal lines indicating a lower degree of temperature ? That 
of 20°? Of 10°? 524. What is said of the comparative temperature of western Europe 
and eastern America? 



of the equator to a few degrees beyond the northern and south- 
ern tropic. Here abound the finest spices, the sugar-cane, the 
palm and banana tribes. It includes the islands and mainland 
of southern Asia, the middle and northern countries of Africa, 
and the central parts of America. 

527. The Warm Regions e'xtend from the northern limit 
of the sugar-cane to the northern boundary of the olive and 
fig ; and include the southern districts of Europe, part of mid- 
land and southwestern Asia, and portions of the southern 
United States. The frosts here are not severe in the plains ; 
snow is rare ; and the rivers are seldom frozen over. The 
winters are more distinguished for dampness than cold, re- 
sembling the spring of the temperate regions. Vegetables on 
the south of this zone grow during seven or eight months 
of the year, and the trees are stripped of their foliage more 
than two months. 

528. The Temperate Regions reach from the northern region 
of the olive and fig to that of the grarjevine, and have a mean 
temperature varying from 50 c on the northern border to 50° on 
the southern. The transition from winter to Bummer is here 
gradual, and the four seasons are distinctly marked. Grain, 
vegetables, and many fine fruits are produced in abundance, 
with excellent pasturage. The northern part of the United 
States is included in this region, with France, Germany, south- 
ern Russia, Holland, Belgium, England, and Ireland, in Europe. 

529. The Cold Regions include the country between the 
northern limits of the grapevine and the oak, or midland 




INTERIOR OF AN ESQUIMAUX HUT. 

Russia and southern Scandinavia, in Europe, southern Siberia 
in Asia, and the British Provinces in North America. The 

Questions.— What is the first cause mentioned? The second? The third? 525. Into 
■what regions may the globe be divided with reference to climate and productions ? 52G. 
"What are the limits of the Hot Regions? "What abound here? What countries does it 
include? 527. "Where do the Warm Regions extend? "What districts do they include? 
What characterizes these regions? 528. "What are the bounds of the Temperate Regions? 
Their temperature? "What is said of the seasons here? What countries arc included in 
this region ? 529. What do the cold regions include ? The seasons hero ? 



CLIMATE. 



C9 



summers are short, hot, and oppressive, and the winters severe 
and protracted. Nearly six months in the year the temperature 
of Stockholm and St. Petersburg is below the freezing point. 

530. The Frozen Regions extend from the northern bound- 
ary of the oak to the pole. The birch, the hardiest of trees, 
generally ceases to grow about latitude 70° in Europe, where 
man is compelled to give up the cultivation of grain. Shrubs 
and vegetation linger on farther north ; grasses and lichens 
then are only to be met with ; and eternal snows and ice suc- 
ceed. In regions north of 55° in eastern Asia, 71° on the 
western coast of Europe, and 59° in America, east of the Rocky 
Mountains, the mean temperature is below the freezing point. 
Around Hudson Bay and in North Siberia, lakes and standing 
water of no great depth are frozen to the bottom ; the inhab- 
itants remain crowded together in small huts ; and if the cold 
air suddenly enters a habitation, the vapors fall in a shower 
of snow. 

531. Observation in high northern latitudes has pretty nearly 
determined the fact that the point of greatest cold is not coin- 
cident with the pole, but that the lowest temperature is found 
at two points situated at about 78° of latitude, and 95° west 

Questions. — 530. Where do the Frozen Regions extend ? Give particulars respecting 
this region. 



longitude, and 130° east. Captain Parry, who wintered at 
Melville Island, often observed the thermometer in the ship at 
50°, and at a distance from the ship at 55° below zero. He 
wintered on the south coast of the island in about latitude 
74°, and obtained the following results of observation : 

The greatest heat at Melville Island was +GCP Fahr. on the 17th July. . 

The greatest cold at ditto, — 50 " on the 15th Feb. 

Mean temp, of warmest month, July +42.41 

" of coldest month, Feb — 32.19 

" of winter— Dec, Jan., Feb — 28.02 

" of spring — March, April, May. . — 03.27 

of summer — June, July, Aug.. .-(-37.11 

" of autumn— Sept., Oct., Nov. . . — 00.51 
The mean temperature for 12 months -(-01.33 

Dr. Kane observed at his winter quarters, on the northeastern 
border of Smith's Strait, a temperature, on the 7th of January, 
1855, of 09.3° below zero — the severest cold which had ever 
been noted by strictly scientific observation. 



Note.— The map-questions relating to Temperature, on pages 
55 and 87 — 95, should be studied before proceeding with the 
following lessons. 

Questions. — 531. What has observation in high northern latitudes determined ? Where 
are the supposed points of the greatest cold ? 



PART IV. 



THE ORGANIC CREATION 




LESSON I. 

PLANTS. 

HE term organic creation is 
applied to those objects which 
have life, and are possessed of 
parts, or organs. Organized 
i bodies are either animals or 
: plants. With animals, the stom- 
i ach is the organ of digestion, 
the lungs of respiration, the 
limbs of motion, etc. A plant 
is also composed of parts, as 
the root, bark, leaves, etc., which 
severally perform certain functions necessary to its existence 
and growth. 

533. Botanical Geography, or the " Geography of Plants," is 
a branch of natural science that treats of the laws which regu- 
late the distribution of vegetable life over the surface of the 
earth. Plants occur over the whole globe under the most op- 
posite conditions. They flourish in the bosom of the ocean as 
well as on land, under the extremes of cold and heat, in polar 
and equatorial regions, on the hardest rocks and in the most 
fertile valleys, amid the perpetual snow of lofty mountains and 
in springs at the temperature of boiling water, and in deep 
caverns where the sun has never sent a cheering ray. 

534. The life and healthy growth of plants depend upon light, 
heat, and moisture. It is light that gives to plants that beau- 
tiful green color, the intensity of which increases with the 
brilliancy of the light. "Plants always turn toward the light; 
the guiding power we know not, but the evidence of some im- 
pulsive or attracting force is strong, and the purpose for which 
they are constituted to obey it is proved to be the dependence 
of vegetable existence upon luminous power."* 

535. Heat is another essential which determines the condi- 
tion of plants, by the amount of it which prevails during the 
season of vegetation. In the cold regions of very high latitudes 
vegetation scarcely exists, and even in the temperate zones its 
luxuriance is materially diminished by the severe climate of 
winter. The influence of heat on vegetable life is most 
strikingly exhibited on high mountains in the torrid zone, 
where the growth and luxuriance of plants diminish in pro- 
portion to elevation, and consequently in proportion to the 
diminution of heat. 

536. Without moisture there can be no vegetation, and this 

Questions. — 532. To what is the term organic creation applied ? What are organized 
bodies? Name some of the organs of animals ? of plants? 538. What is Botanical Geog- 
raphy ? Under what opposite conditions do plants flourish ? 534. Upon what does the 
life, etc., of plants depend ? What gives the green color to plants? 635. Where is the 
effect of heat on vegetation most strikingly exhibited ? 536 What is said of moisture, and 
in what three forms is it applied to plants ? Upon what else is the development of plants 
dependent? 537. What is the business of the physical geographer? 



* " The Poetry of Science, - ' by Robert nunt. 



element is supplied to the plant in three different forms : that 
of vapor which the plant absorbs, — that of liquid water by 
which some plants are surrounded, and that of moisture which 
the plant extracts, as nutriment from the earth. The develop- 
ment of plants is further dependent upon the chemical qual- 
ities of the soil in which they live, whether it be composed 
of pure or mixed earths, or of soil rich in clay or vegetable 
mold. 

531. It belongs to Botany, Vegetable Physiology, and Agri- 
cultural Chemistry to investigate the structure and nature of 
plants, and to examine in detail the treasures of the vegetable 
kingdom. The business of the physical geographer is to notice 
the disposition of the vegetable tribes, and the circumstances 
which seem to regulate their distribution. 

538. Scarcely fourteen hundred species of plants appear to 
have been known by the Greeks and Romans. At the time 
of Linnaeus (a.d. 1762) the number of known species was 
8,800. In 1S35, Lindley gave the number at 86,000. At the 
present time, according to Lyell, there have been collected up- 
ward of 100,000 species; and when we reflect that the interior 
of Africa, of Australia, and of the great islands of Oceanica 
have not been visited by the naturalist, it will not be deemed 
extravagant to estimate the total aggregate of species on the 
earth at 133,000. 

539. "A species embraces all such individuals as may have originated 
from a common stock. Such individuals bear an essential resemblance to 
each other, as well as to their common parent, in all their parts. Thus the 
white clover is a species, embracing thousands of cotemporary individuals, 
scattered over our hills and plains, all of a common descent, and producing 
other individuals of their own kind from their seed."* 

540. The vegetable kingdom consists of two great natural 
divisions, namely, Phajnogamia, or Flowering Plants, and Cryp- 
togamia, or Flowerless Plants. The Phjenogamia possess a 
woody structure, have leafy appendages, develop flowers, and 
produce seeds. They have two subdivisions, depending upon 
their manner of growth, called Exogens and Endogens. 

541. The Exogens (from exo, outside, and genesis, increase) 
are a class of flowering plants whose stems have bark, wood, 
and pith. The bark is increased by layers deposited within 
the previously formed layers, and the wood by layers or rings 
placed outside of those of the previous year. This class em- 
braces the forest trees, as the oak, elm, pine, chestnut, poplar, 
hazel, willow, birch, etc., most of the flowering shrubs and 
herbs, as the arbutus, sage, mint; also the dahlia, artichoke, 
thistle, lettuce, marigold, dandelion, daisy, etc. They are also 
called Dycotyledons, from the seed consisting of two lobes. 

Questions. — 538. How many species of plants were known by the Greeks and Romans ? 
How many at the time of Linnams in 1762? In 1S85? How many have been collected 
at the present time? Probable number on the earth ? 539. What is a species ? Exam- 
ple. 540. Of what two .great natural divisions does the vegetable kingdom consist? 
Describe the Phaenogamia. What two subdivisions have the Phsenogamia? 541. What 
are the Exogens? How are the bark and wood of this subdivision increased? What 
does this class embrace? By what other name are Ihey called, and why ? 



* Wood's " Class- Book of Botany." 



DISTRIBUTION OF PLANTS. 



71 



542. As a new layer is formed every year, it is easy to determine the age 
of an exogenous tree by counting the number of layers or rings. In this 
■way De C.uidolle advances proof of the following ages : 

Elm 335 years. 

Cypress, about 350 " 

Cheirostemon, about - 400 " 

Ivy 450 " 

Larch 575 " 



Orange G30 

Olive 700 



Oriental Plane. 720 years and upward. 
Cedar of Lebanon, about 800 years. 

Oak 810, 1080, 1500 

Lime 1076, 1147 " 

Yew 1214, 1458, 2588, 2880 ys. 

Taxodiurn. . 4000 to G000 
Baobab 5150 



543. The Endogeiis (from endon, within, and genesis, to in- 
crease) are those which have their 
stems increasing from within, and 
present no separate appearance of 
wood, pith, and hark. They compre- 
hend the numerous grasses, and the 
most important of all vegetable tribes, 
viz., the valuable pasture and all the 
grain-yielding plants, wheat, barley, 
oats, Indian corn, rice, sugar-cane, etc., 
with lilies and the palm family. They 
are also called Monocotyledons, from 
having only one seed-lobe. 

544. The Cetptosamia, or flower- 
less plants, include mosses, lichens, 
fungi, ferns, sea-weeds, etc. 

545. Station indicates the peculiar 
nature of the locality where each spe- 
cies is accustomed to grow, and has 

reference to climate, soil, humidity, light, elevation above the 
sea, etc. ; by habitation is meant a general indication of the 
country where a plant grows wild. Thus the station of a 
plant may be a salt-marsh, a hillside, the bed of the sea, or 
a stagnant pool. Its habitation may be Europe, North Amer- 
ica, or New Holland, between the tropics. 




SUGAR-CANE AND BICE. 



LESSON II. 

DISTPJBUTION OF PLANTS. 



546. In considering the distribution of the vegetable species 
it is important to observe the distinction between indigenous 
and exotic plants. The former are the native productions of a 
country ; the latter are those which have been introduced from 
abroad. The number of exotic plants is comparatively small. 
They consist, for the most part, of those species which are 
eminently useful to man in furnishing him food, the materials 
for clothing, etc., besides a variety of flowering plants and 
shrubs. 

547. The indigenous class comprehends the great proportion 
of the vegetable species which adorn the surface of the globe. 
It includes many useful plants which can not be successfully 
transplanted to foreign climes ; but by far the greater number 

Questions.— 542. How may the age of an exogenous tree be determined ? Ages of sev- 
eral species of trees ? 543. What are the Endogeiis? What do tbey comprehend ? By 
what other name are they called, and why? 544. What do the Cryptogamia include? 
545. What does station indicate? Habitation? Illustrate. 546 What are indigenous 
plants? Exotic plants? Of what species do the exotics, for the most part, consist? 547. 
What does the indigenous class comprehend ? What does it include? 543. "What has 
been ascertained respecting th ■ indigenous plants? 



are those which are not so especially serviceable to man, and 
hence there is no inducement to transfer them from the coun- 
tries in which they are naturally found. 

548. Of the indigenous plants, it has been ascertained that 
different regions are inhabited by distinct species. This fact is 
strikingly exhibited by an examination of New Holland, where 
they are found to be, almost without exception, distinct from 
those known in other parts of the world. Countries situated 
between the same parallels of latitude differ essentially in their 
species of vegetation. Out of 2,891 species of flowering plants 
observed by a naturalist in the United States, there were only 
385 which are found in northern or temperate Europe. Hum- 
boldt and Bonpland, in all their travels in equinoctial America, 
found only twenty-four species common to America and any 
other part of the world. 

549. It is a remarkable fact, that in the more widely sep- 
arated parts of the Eastern Continent, notwithstanding the 
existence of an uninterrupted land communication, the diversity 
of species is almost as striking as between countries separated 
by wide oceans. Thus there is found one assemblage of species 
in China, another in the countries bordering the Black Sea and 
the Caspian, a third in those surrounding the Mediterranean, a 
fourth in the great platforms of Siberia and Tartary, and so forth. 

550. By the term botanical province is meant a district the 
vegetation of which consists in great part of species confined to 
the limits of that district. Twenty-five great botanical provinces 
have been established, although many of these contain a variety 
of species which are common to several others. Professor Mar- 
tius, of Munich, has divided the vegetation of the globe into 51 
provinces, namely, 5 in Eurojte, 11 in Africa, 13 in Asia, 3 in 
New Holland, 4 in North America, and 8 in South America, 
besides the province of Central America, the Antilles, the Ant- 
arctic Lands, New Zealand, Van Diemeu's Land, New Guinea, 
and Polynesia. 

551. "The first travelers were persuaded that they should find, in distant 
regions, the plants of their own country, and they took a pleasure in giving 
them the same names. It was some time before this illusion was dissipated ; 
but so fully sensible did botanists at last become of the extreme smailness 
of the number of phEenogamous plants common to different continents, that 
the ancient floras fell into disrepute. All grew diffident of the pretended 
identification ; and we now find that every naturalist is inclined to examine 
each supposed exception with scrupulous severity. If they admit the fact, 
they begin to speculate on the mode whereby the seeds may have been 
transported from one country to the other, or inquire on which of two con- 
tinents the plant was indigenous, assuming that a species, like an individ- 
ual, can not have two birthplaces.""" 

552. Plants are diffused in a variety of ways. The principal 
of the inanimate agents provided by nature for scattering the 
seeds of plants over the globe are the movements of the atmo- 
sphere and of the ocean, and the constant flow of water from 
the mountains to the sea. A great number of seeds are fur- 
nished with downy and feathery appendages, enabling them, 
when ripe, to float in the air, and to be wafted easily to great 
distances by the most gentle breeze. As winds often prevail 
for days and weeks, or even months together, in the same 



Questions.— What is said of the vegetation of different countries situated between the 
same parallels of latitude? Illustrate. 549. What is said of the diversity of speci. s in the 
Eastern Continent? Illustrate. 550. What is meant by the term botanical province? How 
many botanical provinces have been established ? 552. What are the principal inanimate 
agents employed in scattering the seeds of plants? Explain the agency of winds. 



* Lyell's "Principles of Geology.' 



ra 



THE ORGANIC CREATION". 










DISTRIBUTION OF PLANTS. 



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direction, such seeds may be conveyed to a great distance from 
the parent plant. Even the heavier grains may be borne 
through considerable spaces by the hurricanes and whirlwinds 
which prevail in some regions. The germs of many plants, as 
mosses, fungi, and lichens, consist of a fine powder, the parti- 
cles of which are scarcely visible to the naked eye, and there is 
no difficulty in accounting for their being dispersed throughout 
the atmosphere, and carried to any point of the globe where 
there is a station fitted for them. 

553. Rivers aid in the distribution of vegetation by bringing 
down to the valleys the seeds which may accidentally fall into 
them. Thus the southern shores of the Baltic are visited by 
seeds which grew in the interior of Germany, and the western 
shores of the Atlantic by seeds that generated in the interior 
of America. The Gulf Stream is known to convey to the 
western coasts of Europe the fruits and seeds of plants, which 
are indigenous to America and the West Indies, in such a state 
that they might have vegetated had the climate and soil been 
favorable. 

554. Seeds are also distributed by the agency of animals. 
Some kinds adhere, by means of prickles, hooks, and hairs, with 
which they are provided, to the coats of animals, to which they 
remain attached for weeks, or even months, and are borne along 
into every region whither quadrupeds may migrate. 

555. The diffusion of the vegetable species is also promoted 
by migratory birds, which every year alternate in millions be- 
tween different countries, and convey to and fro the seeds 
of plants preserved in their gizzards, or attached to their feath- 
ers. When we reflect that these causes have acted incessantly 
for thousands of years, we can not doubt the immense effect 
of their joint influence in distributing the forms of vegetable 
life upon the surface of the globe. 




BKEAB-FRCIT TREE. 



■■;■, WB 



556. But man has been a voluntary agent in effecting the 
same object, with reference to those plants which are service- 
able for food and clothing, or as articles of luxury and orna- 
ment, or for building purposes. 



Questions— 553. Of riyr-rs. The Gulf Stream. 554. How distributed by animals? 555. 
r.y birds? 550. What kh.ds of plants liavc been distributed by the volun ary agency 
of man ? 



7-1 



THE ORGANIC CREATION. 



557. "Tho date-palm has been introduced from Africa into the south 
of Spain. The grapevine, now so common in western Europe, has been 
naturalized from western Asia. The coffee bush, native to the highlands 
of Ethiopia, was taken thence to tho scene of its present cultivation, the 
southern part of the Arabian peninsula ; and the culture of the tea-plant, 
indigenous to China, has recently been attempted with success in the south 
of France. Eice, known in the southern regions of Asia from the remotest 
antiquity ; the valuable bread-fruit tree, indigenous in the same district, 
and in the Polynesian Islands ; and the more important cereals, wheat, 
barley, oats, and rye, have all been transferred from the Old World to the 
Now uncc the discovery of the latter by Europeans." 

558. " Iu return, the Old World has received from tho New, maize or In- 
dian corn, and the potato, the cultivation of which extends from Lapland 
to the extremity of Africa. Our principal fruit trees appear to have 
traveled into Europe and Great Britain from Syria ; the damson plum, 
with the damask rose, as their names import, from the neighborhood of 
Damascus ; the cherry from Pontus ; the walnut and the peach from 
Persia ; the apricot from Armenia ; the citron, lemon, and orange from 
the warmer parts of Asia."- 



Note. — The map-questions on page 73 should receive at- 
tention before proceeding with the following lesson. 



LESSON III. 

FOOD PLANTS. 

559. Man, iii almost every country, has selected annual 'plants 
for food ; that is, such plants as complete their whole vegeta- 
tive processes within the course of a few months. These, for 
the most part, possess a subterraneous and usually tuberous 
stem, which sends up shoots above the soil ; after some time 
flowers appear, and afterward fruit. During the remainder 
of the year the plants sleep, as it were, beneath -a protecting 
coverlet of earth, and are thus beyond the influence of ex- 
cessive heat or cold. By the cultivation of these plants, man 
has rendered himself independent of the destroying action of 
the dry season in semi-tropical regions, and of the killing influ- 
ence of the winter cold in higher latitudes. It is remarkable 
that there are only three arborescent vegetables in the whole 
world which can be included among the chief food-plants, 
namely, the bread-fruit, the cocoa-nut, and the date, and these 
have become objects of culture, and furnish in certain regions 
the principal food of large bodies of men: 

560. The most common food-plants are as follows : In the 
Old World the species which prevail are the grains, or cereal 
grasses, namely, barley, oats, rye, wheat, rice, millet, sorghum, 
and the olive. The tree3 are the date-palm, banana, cocoa-nut, 
bread-fruit, and the pandanus. In the New World the species 
which have their origin are maize, potato, manioc, and arrow- 
root. The food-plants cultivated to a certain extent in both 
continents are sugar, coffee, tea, the vine, cocoa, pepper, cinna- 
mon, cloves, nutmegs, and cassia. 

561 . The regions over which these plants are distributed may 
b3 seen by inspection of Map 4. They range from the poles 
toward the equator in the following order. Barley, which has 
the widest distribution of all the cerealia, is cultivated from 

Questions- 559. What plants has man selected for his food? What is said of these 
plants? Which arc th« only three arhoresccnt vegetables inemded among the chief food- 
plants? DGO. What species o r food-plants prevail in tho Old World ? Tho trees? 



* Eev. Thomas Hiluer. 



the extreme limits of culture iu Lapland, to the heights nnme- 
diately beneath the equator, but it is only in a narrow zone ' 
of the northern hemisphere that it is reared as the sole bread- 
grain ; beside it appear liye, which is the peculiar bread-grain 
in Norway, Sweden, Finland, and the northern part of Russia ; 
and Oats, which are extensively cultivated throughout northern 
Europe. These grains are also cultivated in North America, 
though chiefly confined to British America and the northern 
part of the United States. 

562. Wheat is the prevailing cultivated plant in Great Britain, 
Germany, France, and a wide range toward the east, including 
the whole of the region of the Caspian ; in the basin of tho 
Mediterranean, and throughout North America, it is associated 
with maize. Its northern limit in America is unknown, the 
country being uninhabited ; but at Cumberland House, in the 
very middle of the continent, one of the stations of the Hudson 
Bay Company, in 54° north latitude, there are fields of wheat, 
barley, and Indian corn. Wheat thrives luxuriantly in Chile 
and Rio de la Plata, and at elevations of 8,500 and 10,000 feet 
above the sea. It even produces grain on the banks of Lake 
Titicaca in the Peru-Bolivian Andes, at the absolute height 
of 12,795 feet, in sheltered situations. Buckwheat is a plant 
of tolerably extensive culture in the northern temperate zone. 
It is a native of Asia, from whence it was brought into Europe 
in the fifteenth century. 

503. Maize or Indian Com is much cultivated in Europe 
and America south of the 47lh parallel 
of latitude. In the United States great 
attention is paid to the culture of this 
grain, of which there were produced, 
in 1860, over 830 million bushels. Puce 
has been cultivated in the southern re- 
gions of Asia from the earliest ages. It 
constitutes the staple food of the inhab- 
itants of the Indian peninsulas, China, 
IE Japan, and the East Indian Islands. 
Rice is the food of a greater number 
^ of human beings than any other grain. 
L It requires excessive moisture, and a 
temperature of 73° at least; conse- 
quently its cultivation is limited to 
countries between the equator aud the 
45th parallel. 

564. The Olive in the Old World 
embraces two zones or bands, north 
and south of the equator, about 9° in width, from latitude 35° to 
latitude 44°. The climate of the New World, which is subject 
to the extremes of heat and cold, is not favorable to the culti- 
vation of this plant. The Date-Palm yields one of the most 
nourishing fruits in existence. It grows spontaneously on the 
southern slopes of the Atlas chain, on the banks of the Nile, 
and in the Canary Islands ; its range extends to Palestine and 
Hindoostan, and it has been introduced into the south of Spain. 
It is said that each tree yields annually from 150 to 200 pounds 
of fruit. 

Qn (ttions.— What species have their origin in the New World ? What food-plant9 are 
cultivated to a certain extent in both continents? 501. What is the region of barley? 
Eve? Oats? 562. Wheat? Its northern limit in America? At what elevation does it 
grow in South America V Buckwheat? 563. Maize or Indian corn V Rice ? What doea 
iti cultivation require? 004. The olive ? Date-palm? 




INDIAN CORN. 



FOOD PLANTS. 



75 



565. The Datc-Palm is a member of the palm family, which 
grows chiefly in the tropics. From their noble and stately 
appearance, palms have been called by Linnams " the princes 
of the vegetable kingdom." "Wine, oil, flax, flour, sugar, and 
salt, says Humboldt, are the produce of this tribe ; to which 
Von Martius adds thread, utensils, weapons, food, and habita- 
tions. The cultivation of the date-palm is an object of high 
importance in the countries of the East. In the interior of Bar- 
bavy, in Egypt, in the drier districts of Syria, and in Arabia, it 
is almost the sole object of culture. It is a slow-growing tree, 
and it has been estimated that the age of oue sixty feet high 
can not be less than 300 years. It is so abundant, and so un- 
mixed with anything else that can be considered as a tree in 
the country between the States of Barbary and the Desert, that 
this region is designated the Land of Dates (Belad-el-Jareed). 

566. The Banana or Plantain, which yields a great amount 
of nutritious substance, is a native of the southern portion 
of the Asiatic continent, but has been transplanted into the 
Indian Archipelago and Africa, and has also found its way into 
the tropical parts of the New "World. The fruits weigh, alto- 
gether, about TO or 80 pounds, and the same space which will 
bear 1,000 pounds of potatoes, brings forth, in a much shorter 
time, 44,000 pounds of bananas ; and if we take account of the 
nutritious matter which this fruit contains, a surface which, 
sown with wheat, feeds one man, when planted with bananas 
affords sustenance for twenty-five. 




BANANA AND COCOA-NCT TREKS. 



567. The Cocoa-nut Palm also belongs to inter-tropical 
climes, flourishing especially on islands and near the sea-shores. 
It is cultivated nowhere so extensively as in the islands of Cey- 
lon, Sumatra, and Java. This tree grows to the average height 
of eighty feet. The nuts hang in clusters of a dozen each on the 
top of the tree. The fruit consists externally of strong, tough, 
stringy filaments resembling coarse oakum, which is formed 
into coir, and extensively used in the East for making cordage. 
Inclosed within this fibrous mass is the she 1 !, of great firmness, 
and used for many domestic purposes. "While the nut is green, 
the whole hollow of the sbell is filled with an agreeable, sweet- 



Que.itions.S6S- What is said of the palm family of plants ? What do they produce ? 
What is remarked respecting the cu'.tiva ion of the date-palm? 506. The banana or 
plantain ? Its productiveness ? 5G7 The cocoa nut palm ? 



ish, refreshing liquor. When the nut is gathered, a formation 
of albumen takes place upon the inside of the shell, producing 
that white, firm, pleasant-tasted, but rather indigestible sub- 
stance which is called the kernel of the nut. A tree generally 
furnishes about 100 nuts. 

568. The Breadfruit Tree is distributed generally among 
the Friendly, the Society, and the Caroline Islands. The tree 
is beautiful as well as useful, and rises to the height of about 
forty feet ; when full grown it is from a foot to fifteen inches in 
diameter. The fruit is green, heart-shaped, about nine inches 
long, and equaling a large melon in size. The nuts, when 
roasted, are said to be as excellent as the best chestnuts, but it 
is principally- for the fleshy receptacle or pulp that it is valued. 
"When roasted it is soft, tender, and white, resembling the 
crumb of a loaf, but it must be eaten new or it becomes hard. 
Others compare the flavor to that of a roasted potato. Such is 
the abundance of the fruit, that two or three trees will suffice 
for a man's yearly supply. 

569. The Potato is a native of Chile, and was first intro^ 
duced into Britain from Virginia, by Sir Walter Raleigh, in 
1586. Of all the vegetable productions especially adapted for 
the sustenance of man it has the widest range, extending, ac- 
cording to Humboldt, from the northern extremity of Africa 
to Labrador, Iceland, and Lapland. In tropical regions an ele- 
vation of 4,000 feet is necessary for its growth. 

570. The Cassava or Manioc is a shrub, a native of Brazil. 
The fleshy roots of this plant yield a nutritious substance, from 
which we obtain our tapioca. This latter article is a kind 
of starch, and is capable of being made into excellent puddings ; 
it is a very wholesome food for children, and for persons whose 
digestive organs are feeble. A considerable quantity of this 
preparation is exported annually from Brazil to the United 
States. Arrow-Root, which forms a pleasant and useful ali- 
ment for children and invalids, is much cultivated both for do- 
mestic use and for exportation in the West India Islands, 
Surinam, and in some parts of Hindoostan. It is so named 
from the property it is said to possess of being an antidote to 
the poisoned arrows of the Indians. 

571. Sugar-Cane. — The range of this plant maybe said to 
extend to all the regions of the torrid zone. In countries 
where the mean temperature is not less than 64°, it extends 
to latitude 30° on each side of the equator in the New World, 
and to about latitude 35° or 36° in the Old. The native coun- 
try of the sugar-cane chiefly cultivated is China ; wild sugar- 
cane was found growing in many parts of America, on the 
discovery of the New World. The cultivated sugar-cane was 
conveyed to Arabia, Nubia, Egypt, and Ethiopia, where it 
became an object of extensive tillage. Early in the fifteenth 
century it first appeared in Europe. Shortly after the discov- 
ery of the New World by Columbus, the plant was conveyed 
to Hayti and Brazil, from which latter country it gradually 
spread through the islands of the West Indies and the southern 
part of the United States. 

572. Coffee. This bush or tree is a native of the Ethiopian 
highlands of Africa, whence it has been introduced into Ara- 
bia, the East and West Indian Islands, Surinam, Cayenne, and 



Questions -563 The bread-fruit tree. Describe the fruit 569. The potato ? 5T0. The 
cassava or manioc ? Arrow-root? 571. Sugar-cane ? Its native country? Into what 
regions was the cultivated sugar-cane successively introduced? 572. Coffee ? 



70 



THE ORGANIC CUE AT I 027. 



Brazil. The tree grows upright with a single stem, covered 
with a light-brown bark, to the height of from eight to twelve 
feet, and has long, undivided, slender, horizontal branches, 
which cross each other. These are furnished with evergreen, 
opposite leaves, not unlike those of the bay tree. The flowers 




TEA AND COFFEE FIELDS. 

grow in clusters at the root of the leaves, and close to the 
branches. They arc of a pure white, and of an agreeable odor. 
The fruit, which is a berry, grows in clusters along the branches, 
under the axils of the leaves. Each berry contains two seeds. 



573. Tea consists of the dried leaves of the tea tree, which is 
indigenous to China and Japan. It was first imported by the 
Dutch in 1610, and was brought into England in 1066. "The 
tea country" in China is situated on the eastern side between 
the 30th and 33d parallel of north latitude. A species of holly, 
called Paraguay Tea, grows spontaneously iu the forests of Par- 
aguay, and yields a beverage called Mate in Brazil. 

574. The Vine comes to perfection in Europe as far north as 
latitude 50° or 52°, but its profitable culture does not extend 
much beyond latitude 48°, — the best wines being produced be- 
tween the 30° and 45° north latitude. Its range in America is 
much more limited, a difference of lO 3 occurring between its 
limits in the Old and in the New World. The Fig is the fruit 
of a small tree with broad leaves. It is produced in India, 
Turkey, Greece, France, Spain, Italy, and northern Africa ; but 
the- best figs come from Turkey. The Cocoa, or Chocolate tree, 
grows spontaneously in several of the countries of tropical 
America ; its fruit resembles a cucumber, the seeds of which 
furnish a substance from which chocolate is prepared. 



LESSON I V . 

ANIMALS. 




575. The animal kingdom is sup- 
posed to comprehend not less than 
250,000 distinct species, of which, 
however, an immense proportion 
belong to the insect class. Its mem- 
bers are arranged in four grand 
divisions, namely: 1. Vertebrated 
animals. 2. Molluscous animals. 3. 
Articulated animals. 4. Radiated 
animals. 

576. Vertebrated animals are those which have a vertebral 
column, or back-bone. This department is subdivided into four 
classes: 1. Mammalia, or animals which suckle their young. 
2. Birds. 3. Reptiles. 4. Fishes. 

577. Mammalia, or the mammiferous class, stand at the head of the 
animal creation, and are distributed into eight orders— besides man, who 
fo:ms a. distinct order, termed Bimana (two-handed). Though they differ 
vastly in appearance and habit, they nevertheless correspond in one partic- 
ular, that of suckling their young. The eight orders, with some of their 
types, are as follows: 1. Quadrumana (four-handed), — monkeys, apes. 2. 
Carnivora (flesh- eaters), — cat, hyena, lion, bear, civet, glutton, mole. 3. 
Marsupkdia (pouched),— opossum, kangaroo, wombat. 4. Rodeniia (gnaw- 

QiiesUons.-SlS. Tea? Paraguay tea ? 574. The vino? Fig? Tho cocoa or choco- 
late tree? 575. How many distinct speciea is the animal kingdom supposed to compre- 
hend ? I. .to what four grand divisions are its members arranged? 576. What are the 
yeneuratcd animals? now is this department subdivided? 077. What is said of the 
mammalia? 



ers), beaver, porcupine, squir- 
rel. 5. Edentata (toothless), — 
sloth, armadillo, ornithoryn- 
chus. 6. Pachydermala (thick- 
skinned), — elephant, rhinoce- 
ros, hippopotamus, zebra, ta- 
pir, horse, ass, and hog. 7. 
Rumirumtia (chewing the cud), 
— camel, ox, goat, sheep, deer, 
antelope, giraffe. 8. Cetacea (be- 
longing to whales), — whale, dolphin, narwhal, seal, porpoise. 

578. Birds are distributed into the following six orders : 1. Rapitces— Birds 
of prey ; 2. Scansores— Climbers ; 3. Oscines - Songsters ; 4. GaUinacccc — Hen- 
like birds (gallina, a hen) ; 5. Grallatores — Waders ; 6. Natatores — Swimmers. 
The known number of species is upward of G.000. 

579. Reptiles are distributed into the following four orders, viz. : 1. Che- 
Ionia (Tortoises) ; 2. Sauria (Lizards) ; 3. Ophidia (Serpents) ; 4. Batrachia 
(Frogs). 

580. Molluscous, oi' soft-bodied animals, are those which 
have no bones, but whose muscles are attached to a soft skin, 
which is inclosed, with few exceptions, in a hard case or shell. 
In this department there are three classes: 1. Those which 
have their heads furnished with feet, as the cuttle-fish, nautilus, 
etc. 2. Those creeping on the stomach, — the slug, snail, lim- 
pet, and whelk. 3. Headless, as the oyster, muscle. 

581. Articulated animals are those in which the body is 
divided into joints or rings, sometimes hard and sometimes 
soft, which supply the place of a skeleton ; this department 
consists of four classes : 1. Annelides, or ringed worms, as earth- 
worms and leeches. 2. Crustacea, animals covered with a hard 
crust, as crabs, lobsters, and shrimps. 3. Insecta, of various 
families, as flies, bees, wasps, and butterflies. 



Ques'ions.— Into what eight orders are they divided ? 57S. Into what six orders are 
birds distributed ? 579. Into what four are reptiles ? 080. What are molluscous or 
soft-bodied animals ? What six classes does this department include V 5 1. What 
are articulated animals ? Of how many, and what, classes does this department 
consist ? 



DISTRIBUTION OF ANIMALS. 



77 



582. Radiated animals are so called because they have 
their organs arranged like rays proceeding from a center : 
they are also called zoophytes or animal pla?its, from their 
resemblance to some families of vegetable forms. This c!e- 
jiartment contains three classe3, which include starfishes, sea- 
urchins, sea-nettles, jelly-fishes, corals, madrepores, infuso- 
ria, and microscopic animals. 



LESSON V. 

DISTRIBUTION OF ANIMALS. 

583. Animals exhibit a wonderful diversity in their organ- 
izations, from the gigantic forms of the elephant and whale to 




TlfiER HUNTING IN INDIA. 

the atom so minute that the strongest magnifying-glass is re- 
quired to detect its individual existence. By the use of the 
microscope it is ascertained that every leaf of the forest, flower 
of the garden, and drop of water teems with myriads of living 
beings, utterly inappreciable by the unaided senses of man, yet 
perfectly organized according to their grade. The variety of 
form, size, strength, and uses, found among animals, with 
their adaptation to every existing climate and soil, are evi- 
dences of the power, wisdom, and goodness of the Creator ; 
for, while some beasts of prey with poisonous reptiles, and 
mischievous insects, are only scourges to the human race, 
the greater number of the animal tribes are subject to the 
control of man, and contribute essentially to his subsistence 
and comfort. 

5S4. It is in the regions within the tropics that we find ani- 
mal life, like vegetable existence, most intensely developed, 
whether we consider the number of individual, or of species, or 
the qualities of size and strength. The coral-forming tribes, 
which belong to the, lowest or radiated department, are chiefly 
confined to those parts of the ocean which lie in the torrid 
zone. (For an account of the structures of these animals, see 
Lesson V., Part I.) Of the molluscous kind, marine shell fish 
of unimportant size and appearance in cold latitudes become 
larger and finer on approaching the equatorial seas. Among 
articulated animals, the arachnidae (spiders and scorpions) attain 
an enormous size in the torrid zone ; the butterflies are mag- 
nificent ; and the insect class, in general, occur in such numbers 
as frequently to become formidable, laying waste the earth, and 
driving nations before them. The termites, or white ants of 

Questions. — 5S2. Why are radiated animals so called ? By what other names are they 
also called ? What animals are included in this class ? 5S3. What is said of the diversity 
in the organization of animals ? 5S4. Where is animal life most intensely developed ? 
What is said of the coral-forming tribes? Of the molluscous kind? Of the articulated 
animals ? 



India and Africa, erect pyramids of clay to the height of ten 
or twelve feet, sufficiently compact to sustain the weight of sev- 
eral men, — far more wonderful works, in proportion to the size 
of the builders, than the pyramids of Egypt. 

585. No part of the world is so remarkable for the profusion 
of insect life as the regions of the Orinoco, and other great 
rivers of tropical America. Humboldt informs us that at no 
season of the year, at no hour of the day or night, can rest be 
found there, and that whole districts in the upper Orinoco are 
deserted on account of these insects. Different species follow 
one another with such precision that the time of day or night 
may be known accurately from their humming noise, and from 
the different sensations of pain which the different poisons pro- 
duce. The only respite is the interval of a few minutes be- 
tween the departure of one gang and the arrival of their suc- 
cessors, for the species do not mix. On some parts of the 
Orinoco the air is one dense cloud of poisonous insects to the 
height of 20 feet. 

580. Among vertebrated animals, the reptiles are especially 
numerous and formidable in this zone, — as the crocodile of 
Africa, the gavial of India, and the alligator of America, — and 
the serpent tribe, some distinguished by their prodigious length 

and power, the python of In- 
dia, and the boa of America, 
and others of smaller propor- 
tions, armed with a poison 
of peculiar deadliness, the 
hooded snake of Asia, the 
cerastes of Africa, and the 
yellow viper of America. 
The birds here are of the 
most beautiful forms, splen- 
eoa constrictor. (jj^ colors, and largest dimen- 

sions,— as the graceful birds of Paradise, inhabiting New 
Guinea ; the parrot tribe of Brazil, the ostrich of Africa, and 
the cassowary of Australia. The mammiferous quadrupeds arc 
likewise found, in tropical regions, in the greatest variety, in- 
cluding the most colossal, the elephant, rhinoceros, hippopota- 
mus, and giraffe ; and the most sanguinary, the lion, tiger, 
leopard, panther, ounce, hyena, puma, and jaguar. 

587. The animal tribes of the temperate and cold regions 
are, with a few exceptions, distinguished for their positive 
utility to man. Advancing from the equator toward the pole, 
they are found, as a general rule, gradually to diminish in 
number, magnitude, and ferocity. The insects of temperate 
regions are much smaller than their tropical fellows, and except 
in the hottest parts of the year, and in marshy localities, they 
produce little inconvenience. The great voracious reptiles 
totally disappear, and the venomous serpents are few and upon 
a smaller scale. The birds of two orders, swimmers and 
waders, chiefly subsisting on fish, increase in numbers with 
distance from the equator ; the songsters also have more melo- 
dious notes in temperate than in tropical countries ; but all the 
varieties are marked with greater simplicity of coloring. 

[Continued on Page 81 ] 

Questions.— 585. Profusion of insect life in tropical countries ? 5S6. What is soi.l 
of the vertebrated animals of tropical regions ? Examples ? Examples of large mam- 
miferous quadrupeds ? 5ST. For what are the animal tribes of the temperate and cold 
regions disiinguished ? The insects of these regions? The reptiles? Th; birds? What 
is said of their colors ? 




THE ORGANIC CREATION, 




DISTRIBUTION OF ANIMALS. 



70 



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ZOOLOGICAL REGIONS. 



81 



588, In the temperate and cold regions the quadrupeds of 
the carnivorous order are chiefly represented by the lynx, wild- 
cat, weasel, fox, wolf, and bear ; the rodents, or gnawing ani- 
mals, by the porcupine, squirrel, rat, mouse, hare, and beaver ; 
the ruminants, which chew the cud, by various species of the 
ox, sheep, goat, and deer tribes ; and the cetacea, inhabitants 
of the ocean, by the porpoise, seal, walrus, narwhal, and 
whale. The herbivorous reindeer and musk ox, and the car- 
nivorous arctic fox and white polar bear, are restricted to the 
coldest climates, as the herbivorous rhinoceros and elephant and 
carnivorous tiger and hyena are to the hottest. 



r-J H. ■} -r- -j 




LION-SEALS OK SEA-LIONS. 



589. The animals of temperate and cold districts are gen- 
erally remarkable for a tendency to be gregarious or social. 
Wolves often hunt in packs ; beavers form colonies ; the wild 
goats and mountain sheep, with the domestic breeds, asso- 
ciate in flocks ; the bison, or American buffalo, is rarely seen 
solitary on the plains of the Missouri, but has membership) 
with a vast herd ; and the reindeer, with other kindred spe- 
cies, have eminently the same characteristics. The gregarious 
tendency of some kinds of fish is observed in the immense 
shoals of herrings and mackerel that visit our coasts, and the 
salmon and shad that flock into our livers at certain seasons 
of the year. Many kinds of birds are remarkably gregarious, 
of which the wild pigeon of America is an example. 

590. Animals are adapted to different climates and diverse 
physical circumstances, by clothing, differing in quantity and 
quality. The quadrupeds of the torrid zorte are mostly fur- 
nished with a coat of short and thin hair ; but with increasing 
latitudes, soft and abundant fleeces become common ; while in 
still colder regions, the beaver, sable, ermine, and bear are sup- 
plied with the thickest furs. The aquatic tribes of birds which 
swim in the cold waters of high latitudes are supplied with a 
compact coat of oily feathers, which abound most upon the 
breast, as it, in swimming, first meets and cleaves the cold 
fluid. The right-whale and walrus, which permanently dwell 
in the cold ocean, derive protection from the chilling waters 
by the enormous amount of blubber, a bad conductor, which 
surrounds their bodies. 



Note. — The map-questions relating to mammalia, birds, 
reptiles, etc., on pages 79 and 80, shoidd be studied before pro- 
ceeding with the following lesson. 

Questions. — 588. What animals in the temperate and cold regions represent Ihe car- 
nivorous order ? The rodents? The ruminants? The cetacea? What animals are re- 
stricted to the co'dest climat. s? What to the honest? 5S9. For what are the animals 
of the temperate and cold regions remarkable ? Illustrate. 590. What is said of the adapta- 
tion of animals to different climates? Illustrate. 591. What must not be inferred re- 
specting the species of different countries in the s-ame latitudes? 



LESSON VI. 

ZOOLOGICAL REGIONS. 

591. The peculiarities which distinguish the animals of the 
warm, the temperate, and the cold parts of the earth were 
briefly explained in the preceding lesson. But we have learned, 
from our examinations of the map, that the same species are by 
no means universal in countries within the same latitudes or 
which have the same temperature. Different regions are char- 
acterized by distinct species of animals as well as vegetables. 
It was observed by Buffon that " when America was discov- 
ered, its indigenous quadrupeds were all dissimilar to those 
previously known in the Old World. The elephant, the rhi- 
noceros, the hippopotamus, the cameleopard, the camel, the 
dromedary, the buffalo (Asiatic), the horse, the ass, the lion, 
the tiger, the apes, the baboons, and a number of other mam- 
malia, were nowhere to be met with on the new continent ; 
while in the old, the American species of the sam9 great class 
were nowhere to be seen — the tapir, the llama, the peccary, 
the jaguar, the cougar, the agouti, the paca, the coati, and 
the sloth." 

592. The earth has been divided by naturalists into tea zoo- 
logical regions. First. The European region, which compre- 
hends, besides Europe, the borders of the Mediterranean, and 
even the north of Africa, and extends into Asia, beyond the 
Ural Mountains and the Caspian. The bear, the fox, the hare, 
the rabbit, and the deer are among the animals which belong to 
this district. 

Note.— It is important to bear in mind that the same name is often ap- 
plied, in different countries, to animals of different species. Thus in North 
America are found bears, foxes, rabbits, and deer ; but they are of a different 
species from those of Europe. The buffaloes which roam in vast herds over 
the prairies of America are very unlike those of India ; and the species of 
India and America differ greatly from the Cape buffalo of southern Africa. 

593. Secondly. The African region is inhabited by many 
animals not found elsewhere. The hippopotamus, for example, 
the giraffe, the zebra, the chimpanzee and gorilla, and the 
thumbless apes, are exclusively African. A few of the species 
inhabiting the northern confines of this continent, such as the 
dromedary and jackal, are common to Asia. The elephant of 
Africa is smaller, has a rounder head and much larger ears 
than the Indian one, and has only three instead of four nails 
on each hind foot. In like manner, not one of the four African 
species of rhinoceros agrees with either of the three Indian kinds. 

594. Thirdly. The southern region of Africa, where that 
continent extends into the temperate zone, constitutes another 
separate zoological province. This region is cut off from the 
countries of milder climate in the northern hemisphere by the 
intervening torrid zone. Here may be found peculiar species 
of the rhinoceros, the hog, and the hyrax, among the thick- 
skinned races ; and among the ruminating, the Cape buffalo, 
and a variety of remarkable antelopes, as the springbok, the 
oryx, the gnou, and several others. 

595. Fourthly. The island of Madagascar, though separated 
from Africa by a channel only 300 miles wide, forms another 



Questions.— What was observed by Buffon ? 592. Into how many zoological regions 
has the earth been divided ? What countries does the Juropcan region comprehend, and 
what animals b. long to it ? 593. What animals are exclusively African ? Which of the 
African animals are common to Asia ? How does the elephant of Africa differ from that 
of Iodiu ? 594. What is said of the southern region of Africa ? What animals are peculiar 
here? 595. What is said of the island of Madagascar ? 



82 



THE ORGANIC CREATION. 



province, all the species, except one, being peculiar. This dis- 
trict is distinguished by the number of the Lemur genus (akin 
to monkeys) which inhabit it. 

596. Fifthly. Another of the great nations of terrestrial 
mammalia is that of India, containing a great variety of pe- 
culiar forms, such as the sloth-bear, the musk-deer, the nylghau, 
the gibbon or long-armed ape, and many others. Sixthly. A 
portion of the Indian Archipeligo, embracing the large islands 
of Java, Sumatra, and Borneo. A few of the species inhabiting 
these islands are common to the continent of India, but most 
of them are distinct. 

507. Seventhly. The islands of Celebes, Ambcina, and New 
Guinea constitute another region, in which are found many 
marsupial quadrupeds. Of this region Lyell remarks : " As we 
proceed in a southwesterly direction, from Celebes to Amboina 
and thence to New Guinea, Ave find the Indian types diminish- 
ing in number, and the Australian {i. e., marsupial forms) 
increasing. Thus in New Guinea seven species of pouched 
quadrupeds have been detected, and among them two singular 
tree-kangaroos ; yet only one species of the whole seven, viz., 
the flying opossum, is common to the Indian Archipelago and 
the mainland of Australia." 

598. Eighthly. When Australia was discovered, its land 
quadrupeds belonged almost exclusively to the marsupial or 
pouched tribe, such as the kangaroos, wombats, flying opos- 
sums, kangaroo-rats, and others. From recent investigations 
it has been ascertained that there are no less than 170 species 
of marsupial quadrupeds, and of the whole number all but 
thirty-two are exclusively restricted to Australia. 

599. Ninthly. North America constitutes another vast zoo- 
logical province, inhabited by species of animals very rarely 
identical with those of Europe or Asia. The influence of 
climate in limiting the range of animals is here conspicuously 




BUFFALO HUNT. 

displayed. The animals of the State of New York are of quite 
a different species from those of the arctic regions, and also 
from those of South Carolina and Georgia. Among the quad- 
rupeds which inhabit the northern part of the continent are 
the musk-ox, polar bear, and the caribou or American reindeer, 
besides numerous species of fur-bearing animals. The grizzly 

Questions.— Or 6. What forms are peculiar to India ? What is said of the species inhab- 
iting the Indian An hipelagi ? 597. Of the islands of Celebes, Amboina, and New 
Guinea ? Whut does Lvell remark of this region ? 59S. What is said of the land quadru- 
peds inhabiting Australia on its discovery? 099. What is said of the animals of North 
America? Cf the influence of climate in limiting the range of animate? Name some 
of the prin ipal quadrupeds oi' this division COO. Wh it is said of South America? IIlus- 
tra e. CGI. How ia the number cf the human race verio'as'y i s.imatcd ? 



bear, the largest and most ferocious of its kind, inhabits the 
western highlands ; and the American buffalo roams in herds 
of thousands over the prairies which extend west from the head 
waters of the Mississippi. 

COO. Tenthly. South America is the most distinct, with the 
exception of Australia, of all the provinces into which the mam- 
malia can be classed geographically. The monkey tribe, which 
are very numerous in the forests of Brazil, differ widely from 
those in the Old World ; many of them having prehensile tails, 
and all being noted for their widely separated nostrils. The 
sloths and armadilloes, the true blood-sucking bats or vampires, 
and many other animals, are peculiar to South America. 



LESSON VII. 

• MAIN". 

601. The number of the human race is variously estimated at 
from 1,000 to 1,200 millions. The impossibility of stating it 
with any degree of precision arises from the fact, that in but few 
countries is any enumeration of the inhabitants ever made ; 
while there are vast and populous regions which have scarcely 
been visited by civilized man. The best opinion appears to be 
that 1,200 millions is a close approximation to the real number. 

602. Mankind, pre-eminently distinguished from the lower 
animals by the high endowments of reason, conscience, and 
speech, also differ from them in consisting only of a single spe- 
cies. They are geographically diffused through almost every 
climate, from the hottest to the most frigid. Under the scorch- 
ing rays of a tropical sun, upon the banks of the Senegal, the 
human body supports a heat which causes alcohol to boil ; and 
in the polar regions of northeast Asia it resists a cold which 
freezes quicksilver. 

603. Few lands have been discovered destitute of a native 
human population. Iceland, Spitsbergen, Nova Zembla, Ma- 
deira, the Azores, St. Helena, the Falkland Isles, and South 
Shetlands, some groups iu the Pacific Ocean, as the Galapagos 
Isles, and a large number of small islets, with all the lands 
within the Antarctic Circle, were uninhabited when first made 
known to European nations, but have, in several instances, since 
been colonized. The range of man extends from the 75th paral- 
lel of north latitude to the 55th of south latitude. The most 
northern dwellers are the Esquimaux, on the shores of Baffin 
Bay ; the most southern are the inhabitants of Tierra del Fuego. 

C04. On man's capability of accommodating himself to a great diversity 
of circumstances, Dr. Paley remarks : " The human animal is the only one 
which is naked, and the only one which can clothe itself. This is one of 
the properties which renders him an animal of all climates and of till 
seasons. He can adapt the warmth or lightness of his covering to the tem- 
perature of his habitation. Had ho been born with a fleece upon his back, 
although he might have been comforted by its warmth in high latitudes, it 
would have oppressed him by its weight and heat as the species spread to- 
ward the equator. 

605. " Within the tropics, where a vegetable diet is found to be most 

Questions.— Most probable number? 602. How are mankind dist nguished from the 
lower animals ? What is said of their widj^ diffusion ? C03. What regions were uninhab- 
ited when first made known to Europeans? Between what parallels docs the range 
of man extend ? 034, GOD. Give the substance of Dr. Palcy's remarks. 



* This re-nark, though not strictly true, is applicable in respect to nearly all the higher 
animals. 



RACES OF M E 1ST . 



83 



grateful and conducive to health, nature supplies, in the greatest abund- 
ance, the most valuable vegetable productions. In the temperate regions, 
animal food is more or less abundant ; and the various kinds of grain, roots, 




NATIVES OF TIEMIA DEL FUECO. 



and fruit afford plentiful and wholesome nutriment. As we approach the 
polar regions, grains and fruit gradual]}' disappear, and animal food be- 
comes more and more exclusively used, until we reach the Samoyeds and 
Esquimaux, who are unacquainted with bread." 



LESSON Y III. 

EACES OF MEN: 

60G. "We are informed in the Sacred Scriptures that it pleased 
the Almighty Creator to make of one blood all the nations of 
the earth, and that all mankind are the offering of common 
parents. Though differing greatly in form, stature, features, 
and complexion, the members of the human race are found to 
possess no specific differences, — the hideous Esquimaux, the 
refined and intellectual Caucasian, the thick-lipped Negro, and 
the fair, blue-eyed Scandinavian being mere varieties of the 
same spjecies. 

GOT. Classifications of makind have been based upon the dif- 
ferences that exist in respect to the'color of the skin, hair, and 
eyes, and of the form of the skull. Talcing the color of the hair 
as the leading characteristic, there are three principal varieties : 
First. The Jifelanic* or black class, -which includes all indi- 
viduals or races which have black hair. Second. The JCan- 
ihous,\ or fair class, comprising those who have brown, 
auburn, flaxen, or red hair. Third. The Albino,X or white 
variety, comprising those whose hair is pure white, and who 
have also red eyes. 

G08. Taking the shcqie of the skull as the basis of a classifi- 
cation, mankind are divided into five grand classes or races — 
the Caucasian, Mongolian, Ethiopic, American, and Malay. 




Questions. — 606. What do V: 
classifications been based ? 



Sacred Scriptures inform us? 007. Upon what have 



* M f.i..'. sic, from the Greek melan, black, t Xanthous, from the Greek xanOos, yellow. 
X Albino, from the La ia ulbits, white. 



009. In the Caucasian 
race, the head is commonly 
of the most symmetrical 
shape, almost round or some- 
what oblong; the forehead 
of moderate extent ; the 
cheek-bones rather narrow, 
without any projection ; the ^ v ^|lf 
face straight and oval, with 
the features tolerably dis- 
tinct ; the nose narrow, with 
the bridge slightly arched ; 
the mouth small, and the 
lips a little turned out, especially the lower one ; and the chin 
full and rounded. 

610. The most perfect examples of this variety are found in 
the regions of western Asia, bordering on Europe, which skirt 
the southern foot of the Caucasus Mountains, from whence the 
class derives its name, and which is near what is supposed to 
be the parent spot of the human race. Here are the Circas- 
sians and Georgians, among whom are found the most exquisite 
models of female beauty. 

611. The Caucasian race, of pure blood, comprises nearly all 
the ancient and modern inhabitants of Europe, except the 
Finnian and Samoyedian tribes in the north, the Tartar and 
Turkish stock in the south, the Magyars or Hungarians in the 
central section, and the Lettons in the vicinity of the Baltic — ■ 
all of which varieties are more or less mixed with Mongolian 
blood. This race also includes most of the inhabitants of south- 
western and southern Asia as far as the Brahmapootra River, 
and of the inhabitants of Africa west of the Red Sea and north 
of the southern borders of Sahara, together with a great num- 
ber of Europeans and their descendants who have settled in 
other parts of the world. 

612. In the Mongolian race the hair is coarse, straight, and 
black, the eyes generally rise in an oblique line from the nose 
to the temples, the arches of the eyebrows are scarcely to be 
perceived, and the face is broad and flat, with the parts im- 
perfectly distinguished. The complexion is generally of a 
tawny or olive color, which ^^t^-s ^^assk 
is described as intermedi- 
ate between that of wheat 
and dried orange peel, vary- 
ing from a tawny white to 
a swarthy or dusky yellow. 

613. This division em- 
braces the tribes that oc- 
cupy the north, central, east, 
and southeast parts of Asia: 
the natives of Siberia, the 
Chinese Empire, Japan, Far- 
ther India, Boothia, and Toorkistan ; also a liberal share in the 
mixed varieties of Europe, previously mentioned, — especially 
those in the north and east ; and the Esquimaux on the shores 
of the Arctic Ocean and Hudson Bay. A portion of this family 

Questions-.— What are the three varieties distinguished by ihe color of ihe hair? 60S 
Into what classes are mankind divided, taking the shape of the skull as the basis of a 
classification? 609. Describe ihe Caucasian race. 610. Where are the most perfect 
examp'es of this variety found ? 611. What people belong to this race ? CJ 2. Describe 
the Mongolian race. G!S. What people are comprised in this division ? 




84 



THE ORGANIC CREATION. 




is distinguished for a considerable degree of culture, especially 
the Chinese and Japanese, but owing to their exclusive social 
system, which has separated them from the rest of mankind, 
they have made but little progress for ages. 

,_ 614. The Ethiopia race have 

black eyes, black woolly hair, 
! flat noses, thick lips, and a pro- 
jecting upper jaw. The fore- 
head is retreating, and the head 
less globular than that of the 
European. The best exam- 
ples of this race are the negroes 
south of the Sahara ; in Soudan 
and Upper and Lower Guinea. 
The natives of Senegambia and 
the Kaffres of the southeastern 
part of Africa resemble others 
of this race in their jet-black color, and some of their features, 
but they are taller, more slender, and better proportioned than 
the rest. 

015. The nations commonly classed with this race are widely 
dispersed ; they occupy all Africa south of the Great Desert 
and Abyssinia, Australasia, and some of the interior portions 
of the larger East India Islands and the Malay Peninsula. To 
this race belong also the negroes in Amer- «:»••>.. 

ica, who were originally brought from Af- 
rica, and who have multiplied in the New 
World to a vast extent. 
. 616. The American race 
guished by a copper-col- 
ored complexion, long, 
coarse, coal-black hair 
(which is never crisped 
like that of the African, or 
curled, as that of the white 
sometimes is), prominent 
cheek bones, broad face, 
and a scantiness of beard. 
Their senses of sight, hearing, and smell are remarkably acute. 
la war arid the chase they are indefatigable, but they are averse 
to regular and mechanical labor. They are cold and phlegmatic 
in temperament, and manifest an extraordinary insensibility to 
bodily pain. 

61 7. The native American tribes and nations, excepting the 
Esquimaux, belong to this class. The Indian tribes of North 
America arc fast disappearing before the spread of the white 
man, being now confined principally to the unsettled regions 
west of the Mississippi. Among the most Avarlike of these 
tribes are the Sioux and Camanches. The Indians of South 
America, except those of the Peru-Bolivian stock, are mostly 
ia an abject condition, indolent, and destitute of that nerve 
and spirit which is known to distinguish their brethren of the 
north. 

618. In the Malay class the top of the head is slightly nar- 
rowed, the face is wider than that of the negro ; the features 
are generally more prominent ; the hair is black ; the color 
of the skin is tawny, but sometimes approaching to that of 





mahogany. The division 
embraces the principal 
tribes of the Indian Archi- 
pelago, and all the island- 
ers of the Pacific, except- 
ing those which belong to 
the Ethiopic varieties. 

G19. " The diffusion of man- 
kind over the globe has trans- 
pired in the course of ages under 
the influence of various causes. 
The pressure of population in 
one district outstripping the means of subsistence, the love of enterprise, 
the spirit of acquisition, social disturbances, and foreign violence, have con- 
tributed to scatter the human family far from the common center -where 
the race originated-. Endowed with intelligence to devise means of sur- 
mounting natural barriers — mountains, deserts, rivers, lakes, and the ocean 
— there is no difficulty in accounting for the geographical range of man. 
The contiguity of the mainland of northeastern Asia to that of northwestern 
America, with the nearly-connected chains of the Japan, Kurile, and Aleu- 
tian isles intermediate, point to 'the New World as having received its 
original population from the Old in that direction. In modern times, ad- 
verse winds have driven Japanese junks across from one continent to the 
other ; and, probably, more frequently than we are apt to imagine, crews 
have been compelled to expatriation by the tempest, surviving its perils, and 
colonizing distant isles and archipelagoes." — Rev. Thomas Milner. 



QUESTIONS ON THE MAP. 

HABITABLE LIMIT AND SUBSISTENCE OF MAN. 
Where is the most northern permanent habitation of man ? What settle- 
ment exists there? Ans. Port Foil;, an Esquimaux settlement. What is its lati- 
tude. Ans. About 78° 18' north. How far north do the Samoiedes, in Asia, 
have a permanent abode ? Does the permanent habitation of man extend 
farther south than the islands near the southern extremity of the Western 
Continent ? In wdiat zone do the inhabitants subsist, almost wholly on ani- 
mal diet ? [S:e perpendicular line near the middle nf the m-ip, marked with the kinds 
of diet in the different zones.] In what one, on little else than vegetable diet? 
In what two zones is their diet of mixed animal and vegetable food ? 

DISTEIBUTION OF EACE3, ETC. 

To which of the principal races of mankind do the occupants of the arctic 
regions belong almost exclusively ? Does this race overspread the entire 
northern borders of both the continents ? What race occupies the greatest area 
on the Eastern Continent ? In what peninsula does it extend farthest south ? 

What arc the inhabitants of Farther India called ? What are the principal 
population on the north of the region occupied by the pure Chinese ? What 
stock inhabit most of central Asia? By what other name is it commonly 
known? Ans. The Tartar stock. Arqjmd the borders of what sea is a limited 
portion of Europe occupied by the Turkish variety of the Mongolian race ? 
What branch of this race is the most widely spread in northern Europe ? 
What stock occupies the northern part of the Scandinavian peninsula? 

What is that branch of the Mongolian race which inhabits the northern 
regions of the Western Hemisphere called ? 

Which of the races is most widely dispersed in the mild and warm 
parts of the world ? AVhich occupies nearly all southwestern and southern 
Asia as far as the Brahmapootra Biver and Himalaya and Hindoo Koosh 
mountains ? Does this race possess all Europe except the small part in- 
habited by Mongolians ? Is it the chief race in Africa north of the Tropic 
of Cancer ? In the basins of what river and sea does it extend considerably 
south of this section? What remote extremity of Africa does it occupy? 
The southeastern and southwestern borders of what great island does it 
inhabit? What large islands in the vicinity does it wholly or partly over- 
spread ? 

The exterior portions of what grand division, except in the south, are 



Quenlio s. — 614. Describe the Ethiopic race. Where are the best examples for.nd ? 
615. Wtnit is s-aid of their wide dispersion ? 



Questions. — G16. Describe the American raeo. G17. Whut tribes and nations belocg to 
this race ? G18. Describe the Malay race. What trib'es does this race include? 



RACES OF MEN". 




mostly occupied by the Caucasian race ? What is the only extensive re- 
gion in the southern half of North America which is not occupied by 
this race? 

Into what two great branches is the Caucasian race divided ? Ans. The 
Japhetic or Inch-European branch, and the Semitic or Syro-Arabian branch. Why 
are these branches termed Japhetic and Semitic ? Ans. Because, by many 
writers, the members of the former are supposed to be descendants of Japheih, the youngest 
son of Noah ; and those of the latter, of Shem, the oldest son of Noah. 

Which of these branches occupies northern Africa ? What great peninsula 
in Asia, and the country between the river Euphrates and the eastern part 
of what sea does it inhabit ? On the southern border of what peninsula in 
Europe is it found ? Does this branch predominate elsewhere ? 

What variety of the Semitic branch is found in Egypt ? Of what ancient 
people are they the present representatives ? ..4ns. The ancient Egyptians. 
Of what is the population of the Barbary States mainly composed ? What 
inhabitants are found on the northwestern border of the Sahara ? Ans. B-s. 
What branch of the Caucasian race includes all the families of the same 
that are widely dispersed ? What variety of this branch occupies eastern 
Europe ? What, southwestern Europe ? What, the rest of Europe, inhab- 
ited by the Caucasian race, including Iceland and most of the British Isles ? 

In what region of Ncrth America are the inhabitants of Indo-European 
stock largely intermixed with aboriginal American ? What part of South 
America is a continuation of this region ? By what Europeans was the 
southern part of this region mainiy settled ? Ans. By Spaniards. In what 
part of South America is there a similar region ? Between the mouths of 
what great rivers does it extend ? By whom was it chiefly settled ? Ans. 
By Portuguese. To what leading variety of the Indo-European branch do 
both the Spanish and Portuguese belong ? Ans. To the Celtic. 

In what country of South America are the inhabitants of purer Indo-Eu- 
ropean stock ? From whom are they chiefly descended ? Ans. From English, 



French, and Dutch. From whom are the Indo-European inhabitants of the 
United States and provinces on the north descended ? Ans. From the British 
(chiefly English), and, to a much less extent, from the Germans. To which of the 
leading varieties of the Indo-European branch do the population, thus com- 
posed, mostly helong ? Ans. To the Teutonic. Has the Teutonic variety in 
America ever intermixed much with the aborigines ? Ans. It has not. Does 
it present, in this respect, a marked contrast with the Celtic ? 

Does the true African or negro race constitute the ruling population in 
any region of considerable extent besides Africa? Have the representative;? 
of this race, in modern times, become voluntary settlers in distant lands? 
Ans. They have not. Would the lack of a commercial character, arising from 
the limited shore-line of Africa, as compared with its area [see p ge 3], have 
a tendency to restrict them to their aboriginal home ? Would the Sahara 
form an important harrier to their overland migrations ? 

What peculiar varieties of this race are found in South Africa ? 

What variety somewhat resembling those just mentioned is found in New 
Guinea and the small islands extending thence southeasterly to the Fejee 
group ? What variety constitutes the aboriginal population of Australia .' 

What island is the most western in the Old World, inhabited by Malays? 
With what other race are the Malays of this island intermixed ? Ans. The 
Negro. What peninsula is the only continental region occupied by Malays ? 
Docs this race extend over all Oceanica, except the islands inhabited by the 
Papuan and Australian varieties ? Do the Polynesians, in the eastern part 
of Oceanica, differ somewhat from the true Malay type ? Ans. They do. 
What other race do they resemble ? Ans. The American or Indian race, 

Is the Indian population of America mostly confined to the interior ? In 
what part of North America does it reach the coast ? Of South America ? 
What variety of race inhabits the southern part of South America ? For 
what is this variety remarkable ? Ans. For exceeding in stature any other of the 
varieties of mankind, the males averaging about six feet in height. 




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The averape annual temperature is shown ly isothermal 

lines, crossing die 7iwp . 25! 

lifowitain Chams.are represented thus ■ ■ «cai ■ 
ihe-iroadertne line, the yreaterthe elevations . 
Thehighest points are marlced-Hithr circles. 
The futures nttaclicd'to the names afmountams 
Tfasscs, TbimsA'C. indicate their elevation, ahave tidewater 
in, feet. The coloring shmrs the^pjin&paZ inland hasins 
&maralimeslDpes;astheJL£issC$sippiljaszrL. GteJtkznticSlopc&c 
The names of the c7uef productions ofeneh, cazmtryare 
inserted thus Sugar. Hpmp &c The localities wliere 
metals are toand aremar&ed thus ^>o\i , Co^av . 



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iJ 



QUESTIONS ON THE MAP. 

SITUATION AND EXTENT, 
What is the latitude of the most northern limit of the United States? 
Of the south point of Florida Keys, the most southern limit of the United 
States? Ann. About 24° 30'. Is this country longest fro-vi east to west in 
the northern or southern part? "What is the longitude of the eastern cx- 
tremily of Maine, thi most eastern point of the United States? Ans. About 
67° IT. I n. Ot' Cape Flattery, the most western point? 

MOUNTAINS AND RIVER SYSTEMS. 

"What great chain of mountains forms the dividing line between the wa- 
ters tributary to the Atlantic and those tributary to the Pacific? Is much 
the greater part of the country on the eastern or western side of this chain ? 
"What noted river divides the eastern section into two nearly equal parts? 
"What mountains form the watershed between the valley of this river and 
the Atlantic ? "Which are the two highest chains between the Rocky Mount- 
ains and the Pacific ? Name the three loftiest peaks of the Rocky Mountains 
in this country, so far as known. What .towering summit at the southern 
ex'.rem ty of the Cascade Range? 

Into how many and what principal slopes and basins is that part of tho 
United States east of tho Rocky Mountains divided with respect to its drain- 
age? [The extent of the principal basins and slopes is indicated by the 
coloring.] The part west of the Rocky Mountains ? "What basin comprises 
nearly half the whole country? "Which is the principal river of the Hudson 
Bay Basin in the north? Does the Lawrentian Basin — or the valley of the 
St. Lawrence and Great Lak- s— include a very extensive area in the United 
States ? In what direction is the prevailing inclination of the Atlantic slope, 
or the general course of iis rivers, nortli of Chesapeake Bay? Between tho 
head of Chesapeake Bay and Florida? Of the Gulf slope from Florida to 
the Mississippi ? West of the Mississippi ? What great river of the latter 
section drains the valleys between the southern branches of the Rocky 
Mountains? 

What one drains the Pacific slope south and east of the Great Basin? 
What is its prevailing course, and into what does it flow ? What consider- 
able lake receives the drainage of the northeastern part of the Great Basin ? 
Which is the chief river in the western part of this basin? What river drains 
the northern part and what one the southern part, of an extensive valley be- 
tween the Sierra Nevada and the Coast Range ? Do both unite in the same 
outlet? What great river receives the drainage of nearly the whole of tho 
Pacific Slope north of the Great Basin ? 

What is the true parenL stream or chief tributary of the Mississippi ? Is it 

longer than the Mississippi as commonly designated ? Are several of 'ho 

tributaries of the Mississippi-Missouri among the longest rivers in North 

America ? 

TEMPERATURE. 

What is the mean annual temperature of the northern part of Maine? 
[See the isotherms intersecting if] Through the northern part of what 
State west of the Great Lakes does the isotherm of 40° pass? To the north- 
ern border of what Territory does this isotherm extend southward in tho 
region of the Rocky Mountains? Should we infer that thntpartof this region 
inclosed by the isotherm of 40° embraces the coldest sections of the United 
States ? What gives these sections so low a temperature ? 

Do the isotherms, generally speaking, bend somewhat southward in 
crossing the Appalachian Mountain Systen? Why do they extend less to 
the south, than in crossing the Rocky Mountains ? 

What is the mean temperature of the northwestern extremity of tho 
United States? How does it compare with that of the northeastern ex- 
tremity ? Should we inft-r from its latitude that it would be warmer or colder 
than the latter? What town ia New Mexico has nearly the same mean 
annual temperature ? Is ihe elevation of Santa Fe more or less than a railo 
and a quarter (6,350 feet) above the level of the sea? Does the proximity 
of neighboring mountains, as well as i's own elevation, render its climate 
colder? What city nearly 400 miles firther north on the eastern coast of 
the Uni'ed States has the same average temperature? 

Wha' is the mean temperature of the northern borders of the Gulf of Mex- 
ico ? Is it warmer than any part of the Pacific coast of this country ? 

RAIN. 

[For answers to ihe following questions, see the corner chart"] 

Does more rain fall in the eastern or western part of the Uuited States? 
Which part borders on the sea to much the greater extent ? What large 
bodies of water in the north contribute to the supply of rain in this section ? 
Does the eastern part of the country have most rain in the north or south ? 
From what gulf is a large part of the vapor derived which supplies the 
rain in the south? 

Is nearly the whole western section of the United States, from a north 
and south line crossing the middle course of the Missouri River to near tha 
Pacific, scantily supplied with rain, as compared with the eastern section ? 
What parts of Texas and New Mexico have only ten inches a year, or about 
one fourth as much as the eastern section ? What amount of rain falls over a 
considerable belt extending from this region to about the middle course of the 
Missouri ? What desolate tra t is comprised in this belt ? Ans. The Great 
American Desert. Does the wesiern half of the plateau region embraced be- 
tween the Rocky Mountains on one side and the Blue Mountains and Sierra 
Nevada on ihe other, have more or less rain than the Great American Desert ? 
What third of this sectior has only five inches a year? Where is there a 
email tract which has only three inches a year? What complete desert is 
comprised in this tract? Ans, The Colorado Desert. 

Is the western border of the United States from the vicinity of San Fran- 
cis o ISay, southward, scantily supplied with rain? What part of the Pa- 
cific noast has more rain than any other portion of the United States ? 



98 



APPENDIX I. 



PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY OF THE UNITED STATES. 



SITUATION AND EXTENT. 
The Un'ted States, stretching from the Atlantic to tbe Pacific, and from 49° north lati- 
tude to 24° 30' souih latitude, comprise nearl> tbe whole of the mild and warm temperate 
regions of North America, and thus embrace ihe moat attractive portions of the grand di- 
vision. The grea'es' length of the coun'ry, from north to south, is nearly 2,400 miles ; the 
greatest breadth, from east to west, about 1,700 miles. Its ar<-a is very nearly 8,000,000 
square miles, or but little less than that of the entire surface of Europe. 

SEA-COASTS, ETC. 

In external form this country is remarkably compact, presenting no great peninsula ex- 
cept that of Florida, and being penetrated far inland by no great arm of the sea. Owing, 
however, to the presence of tnc Gulf of Mexico on the south, and tbe oblique directions 
of the Atlantic and Pacific shores, it has an ample development of coast, and enjoys 
abundant maritime advantages. 

The Atlantic coast and Gulf coast are varied by numerous small inlets and by several 
bays of considerable ex ent ; so that the total length of the furmer, including its windings, 
is nearly 6,900 miles, and of the laiter nearly 3,500 miles. The Pacific coast, on the con- 
trary, is more uniform ; the mountain ranges which run parallel to it, or extend along its 
borders— in ma- y parts trenching close on the sea, and presenting a bluff, iron-bound 
shore ; while only at two points do they open for the access of far-invading waters, the nar- 
row inlets of Puget Sound and San Eraneisco Bay. The whole length of the Pacifle 
coast, therefore, is but little over 2,300 mdes, or only two thirds as great as that of the 
Gulf coast 

On the north the United States have no sea-coast; but nearly equivalent to this are the 
shnrcs of the Great Lakes, which, although remarkably uniform — affording few harbors 
except at the mouths of the rivers — have a total length (including their insular lines) of 
about 3,G00 miles. 

Thus the entire shores of this country, bordered by great bodies of water, are not far 
from 16,000 miles in length, or about four filths as long as tbe winding sea-coast of Europe, 
the most maritime of the grand divisions of the globe. 

NAVIGABLE INLAND ■WATERS. 

But notwithstanding the compact figure of the United States, or the fact that none of the 
great bodies of water which surround it penetrate far toward the heart of the country, — its 
natural facilities for water communication are by no means chiefly confined to its borders. 
Nor in scarcely any part, except the southwest, is it very difficult of internal access with- 
out the aid of artificial channels. 

The Mississippi River, with its numerous tributaries ramifying like a vast arterial sys- 
tem through the interior, opens not less than 15,000 miles of navigable water-ways The 
main stream of the Missouri-Mississippi may be ascended in light-draft steamers from the 
Gulf of Mexico to the Great Falls of the Missouri, or nearly to the foot of the Rocky 
Mountains. On the Pacific side of the mountains, the Columbia River may be ascended 
in like manner to the Cascades; so that the distance between the heads of steamboat 
navigation on the two streams is only 450 miles. 

The Ohio River — the great eastern tributary of the Mississippi — is open to steam navi- 
gation as far as Pittsburg, in western Pennsylvania, or to within 200 miles of the head of 
natural navigation on the Potomac River. 

Accordingly, one may pass through the heart of the country, from the Atlantic or Gulf 
of Mexico to the Pacific, without an overland journey of more than a few hundred miles. 

The same easy natural means of communication appear in other directions. The jour- 
ney from the Gulf of Mexico to the Great Lakes may be accomplished in steamers by way 
of the Mississippi and Illinois rivers to within a hundred miles of the head of Lake Mich- 
igan. In like manner one may pass from the remotest extremity of the Great Lakes to 
the Atlantic by way of the St. Lawrence and other connecting streams, aided only at a few 
points by canals to circumvent the rapids. 

Easy communication also may be had between New York — the great commercial me- 
tropolis of the country — and the St. Lawrence, by way of the Hudson River, joined by a 
short canal to Lake Champlain and its outlet, the Sorelle. 

The number of navigable channels extending inland from the coast to distances vary- 
ing from near a hundred miles to 300 or more— as the lower courses of the Delaware River, 
the James, Cape Fear, Savannah, Appalachicola, Alabama, Colorado, and Rio Grande — 
are too numerous to be mentioned. 

On the Pacific borders of the country, however, the extent of navigable streams is quite 
limited, owing to ihe near approach of the mountains to the coast, and the fact that they 
seldom open for the outlet of large rivers from the interior. 

GENERAL SURFACE OF THE COUNTRY. 

Passing from east to west, the surface of the United Stntes presents eight principal sec- 
tions, viz., the lowlands which border the Atlantic and Gulf of Mexico, the Appalachian 
Mountain System and its associate plateaus, the lowlands of the Great Central Plain, the 
"Western Steppes, the Rocky Mountains, the Great "Western Plateau, the Pacific maritime 
chain of mountains, and the Pacific coast region. 

The Atlantic lowlands vary in breadth from 50 to 200 or 250 miles. 

In the New England States they are seldom more than 100 miles wide, and, except in 
southeastern Massachusetts, generally present a somewhat hilly surface, diversified with 
numerous lakes and ponds. The abundance of these sheets of water in some parts of 
Maine and New Hampshire renders the scenery remarkably picturesque, the country as 
viewed from the lofty hill-tops seeming literally begemmed with their mirror-like surfaces. 
The prevailing unevenness of the maritime region of New England renders the coast 



bold and irregular, and causes the presence of many rocky islands along its border. It 
abounds, therefore, in deep and well-sheltered harbors which afford superior facilities for 
commercial intercourse. This character is especially marked on the coast of Maine. 

From the Hudson River, southward, the Atlantic lowlands are divided into two princi- 
pal sections : one, a low plain, bordering the sea, and bounde.d on the west by a rocky 
terrace known as " The Ridge ;" the other, a hilly region, gradually increasing in rugged- 
ness toward the Allcghanies. 

The surface of the plain is wavy in the interior, but flat and frequently marshy over a 
considerable breadth i> long the seaboard. Owing to the flatness of the latter secthm, it 
has gently sloping and comparatively r.gular shores, bordered by shallow waters, and 
affording but few good harbors. Being of an alluvial character, moreover, it is skirted to 
a great extent by long low islands formed of the accumulated sediment deposited between 
the spreading currents of the rivers and the inflowing tides of the ocean. In some parts 
these islands afford but few inlets to the narrow bays or channels which separate them 
from the mainland. Shifting sand-bars, also, frequently obstruct the inlets or ihe mouths 
of the rivers beyond ; thus rendering access to the litter comparatively difficult. 

The width of the muriiime plain varies from flfy to one hundred miles, except in tho 
northern part of New Jersey, wuere it is much narrower. The larger rivers crossing this 
plain are generally navigable to the foot of " The Ridge," over which the waters descend 
in abrupt falls or rapids. These falls are among the most in, p.. rtant geographical features 
of this part of the United Stales ; since, by arresting the progress of navigation and sup- 
plying extensive water-power, they have given rite, in their vicinities, to a chain of large 
commercial and manufacturing towns and cities— such as Newark, Trenton, Baltimore, 
Georgetown, Richmond, Petersburg, Raleigh, Augusta, and Macon, — which extends, 
on the line of " The Ridge," through seven of the Atlantic States. 

The Peninsula of Florida, lying between the Atlantic and Gulf of Mexico, is wholly 
embraced in the maritime plain, and to a great extent is flat and marshy. 

The Gulf Lowlands are merely a continuation of the Atlan'ic Lowlands. East of the 
basin of the Mississippi they are divided, like the latter, into a hilly interior section and 
a level or wavy coastwise section by a somewhat ill-defined prolongation of the Ridge, 
through Georgia and Alabama, into Mississippi. Their limit on the north is quite irreg- 
ular, being formed by the extremities of the plateau and higher ranges of the Appalachian 
System and by the watershed which separates the basin of the Tombigbce River from that 
of the Tennessee. The breadth of these lowlands is seldom less than 250 miles, or more 
than 300 miles. Their most distinguishing characteristics are the well-marked valleys 
which furrow the hilly regions at intervals from north to south, or from northeast to south- 
west, and the high ranges of bluffs which border the upper courses of several of the rivers. 

"West of the basin of tbe Mississippi the Gulf Lowlands are almost wholly occupied by 
the maritime plain. They vary in breadth from 150 to nearly 800 miles, and, except a flat 
coastwise belt covering about one fifth of this breadth, are an extensive undulating prairie. 

The Appalachian Mountain System consists of two principal sections, separated from 
each other by a well-marked depression in the basin of the Hudson River and vicinity, and 
gradually rising thence to their culminating point in the north and south. 

The northern section is the most irregular, embracing, besides its principal ranges and 
groups, numerous peaks scattered over a wide area, especially in Maine and New Hamp- 
shire. It reaches its greatest elevation in the wild and romantic group of the "White 
Mountain?, the sublime ecenery of which is familiar to travelers from all parts of the world. 

The plateau, or broken scries of table-lands which belongs to this section, has a rugged 
outline, and presents but little area except of a hilly or mountainous character. 

The southern section of the Appalachian System consists of two parallel zones of eleva- 
tion : the eastern zone, composed of successive ranges rising one after the other toward the 
interior; the western, divided from the former by a broad plateau-like valley, and con- 
sisting of adjaceut table-lands or high plains, wrinkled here and there with longitudinal 
ranges of hills. 

In the northern half of this section, most of the ranges are " remarkable for their regu- 
larity, their parallelism, their abrupt acclivities, the almost complete uniformity of their 
summits, and their moderate elevation. They present the appearance of long and con- 
tinuous walls, the blue summits of which trace along the horizon a uniform line seldom 
varied by any peaks or crags." 

Advancing southward, however, their elevat : on increases, the ranges become indented, 
irregular, and more numerous; until, in North Carolina, "the form of simple parallel 
ridges" disappears, and, in place of this, we have a broad mountain-tract, thickly and often 
irregularly studded with lofty peaks. Here, in all respects, is the culminating region of 
the Appalachian System. Scores of summits rise to a height of G, 000 feet; while the loftiest 
— Black Dome or Mitchell's High Peak, in the group of the Black Mountains — lias an 
altitude of G,TH feet, being the highest point of land east of the Mississippi River. 

South of North Carolina, the mountains gradually sink into low hills, and the ranges 
terminate in northern Georgia and Alabama. 

The Plateau of the Alleghanies, or southern plateau of the Appalachian System, is 
traversed by ranges of hills running parallel with the mountain chain of which it forms 
the basis. Between the Blue Ridge on the east and the Alleghanies and Cumberland 
Mountains on the wes f , it consists of a spacious valley, embracing level tracts of consider- 
able area, which extends ihrough Pennsylvania, Maryland, Virginia, and Tennessee. Tho 
average elevation of the plateau is scarcely 1,800 feet, but in southern Virginia it reaches a 
height of 2,000 feet and upward. 

The lowlands of the Great Central Plain, in the eastern part, are somewhat broken by 
the descending terraces of the Appalachian highlands and by the low ranges of mount- 
ains or liil'8 which border the same. "West of this, they present a vast level or undulating 
tract, reaching far beyond the Mississippi. 



PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY OF THE UNITED STATES, 



99 



This almost unvarying expanse is made up in great part of half wooded and open 
prairies— the latter, or true prairies, being most common ia Illinois and in the States lying 
"west of the Mississippi, and reaching as far south as the Ozark Mountains. In many sec- 
tions, however, the landscape is agreeably varied by woody bottom-lands bordering the 
rivers, and bounded on each side generally by steep acclivities or lines of bluffs. 

Along many of the larger rivers the bottom-lands are of considerable breadth. Those 
of the Missouri, for instance, arc five miles wide. But the bottom-lands of the Mississippi 
below its junction with the Missouri are most remarkable for breadth, being frequently 
from forty to fifjy miles wide ; while the bluffs which border them are in soma places two 
or three hundred feet high. 

Here and there the marginal flats are penetrated by creeks or bayous, and interspersed 
with swam- a or lagoons. Winding through them, the rivers pursue a variable and un- 
certain course ; the force of their currents, when deviated by slight obstacles, often wear- 
ing away the soft alluvial banks until an entire new channel has bpen gained. Thus, in 
Borne places, the whole breadth of the bottom-land is brought on one side of the stream ; 
while, on the opposite side, the river runs close to the bluffs, or even undermines them. 

The lower Mississippi is especially noted for its crooked and variable coarse. Some 
of its bends, where the intervening neck is only one mile across, are thirty miles around. 
Channels called cut-offs h ive been opened across several of these, making an important 
saving in the navigable distance of the river. 

But although the general character of the Lowlands of the Great Plain is that of a level or 
undulating tract, they include several regions besides thy t along the eastern border, which 
present a marked variety of surface. Among these, the most uneven is the billy tract, em- 
bracing the Ozark Mountains, which extend from the interior of Missouri into the n< rth- 
west corner of Arkansas, and the neighboring border of Indian Territory. Much of 
Minnesota, also, with the northern part of Wisconsin and the peninsula between Lake 
Superior and Lake Michigan are comparatively rugged. The scenery of these northern 
regions is rendered peculiarly attractive by the myriads of lakes embosomed in their val- 
leys, and the numerous water-falls which break the pt-aceful currents of their rivers. 

The Westera Stepp s, embracing the table-land section of the Great Central Plain, con- 
sists mainly of a succession of terraces, gent-rally presenting abrupt edges to the eas', and 
rising one above the other, with gentle slops, to the Rocky Mountains. 

In many places, especially at the south, the rivers crossing these terraces flow through 
canons, or deep and narrow defiles, which at the borders of the terraces, in some instances, 
extend several hundred feet below the general surface. 

The mean height of the S eppes, between ihc Arkansas River and the upper Missouri, 
is about 4,009 feet ; but, along the base of ibe Pocky Mountains, from the Llano Estacado 
to the upper Missouri it is not less than 5,000 feet, or, in many parts, more than one mile. 

The Rocky Mounta ; ns, entering the United States from British America, gradually 
expand east and wesf, until the chain attains a breadth of from 200 to SCO miles. The 
mountain region is made up partly of distinct ranges, an 1 partly of peaks irregularly dis- 
pused, frequently with broad level valleys between. The height of the mountains, except 
in New Mexico, often exceeds 10,000 feet above the sea, and in several instances 14,000 feet; 
but owing to the elevation of the table-land region that forms their basis, and which in some 
parts has a height of 7,000 feet, their ahi'ude is much less imposing than it would otherwise 
appear. Indeed, few of the mountains lift their snowy crests more than a mile above the 
neighboring surfa e ; and at intervals, i:i many cases of not more than 50 or 100 miles, the 
chain is broken by passes, affording more or less practicable route* for travel. 

The Great Weste n Plateau presents a varied surface, consisting of elevated plains 
traversed by mountain ranges, with numerous broad valleys and terraced slopes. 

Sou!b and east of ihe Great Basin it is intersected in many parts by canons ; some of 
them formed apparently by a violent sundering of the rocky strata whose ragged edges 
make up their almost perpendicular walls; others, by the slow wearing away of their 
beds by the s reams which traverse them. Many of these canons are of the most startling 
character. On some sections of the upper Colorado they are over a mile in depth, and so 
narrow at the lop that the beams of the vertical sun scarcely irradiate the fearful chasm. 

The surface of the Great Plateau also is strikingly diversified in the south by elevated 
tables termed mesas (ma'saks), the abrupt edges of which, in many instances, arc scarcely 
less precipitous than the rocky walls of the canons. 

The mariiiine chain of mountains which forms the western boundary of this plateau is 
in many parts higher than the Eocky Mountains. Unlike the latter, hpwever, it rarely 
takes on a plateau- like form, but consists mainly of parallel ridges rising to a great alti- 
tude above their base, and including numerous snow-capped peaks. These ranges are 
generally sharp, and are peculiarly abrupt on the western slope. But notwithstanding 
their height, they are sundered at several points by transverse valleys which afford outlets 
to the principal rivers. 

The Pacific coast region cocsists chiefly of narrow valleys opening toward the sea. 

MINERALS. 

The mineral resources of this country surpass those of any other known section of the 
globe. Deposits of all the principal metals except tin arc found here in great abundance 
and richness; and those of less imporiant metals to such extent as warrants the belief that 
they are not less plentifully distributed than in other countries. 

The western part of the Uni ed States seems almost to realize Ihe extravagant antici- 
pations of the early adventurers who visited America in search of'the mythical El Dorado. 
Its ^old-fields are the most spacious and productive in the world, and its newly-discovered 
silver regions in the south also are of unusual extent and richness. 

Iron is very widely disseminat"d. Indeed, there is scarcely a State or Territory in the 
national domain where it may not be mined in sufficient quantity for future wants. 

Note. — For further information concerning the metallic products of this country, see 
pages 106, 107. 

But the coal-fields of the United States are among its richest possessions; both on ac- 
count of their unrivaled extent, and of the situation of several in the midst of vast level 
regions" where the supplies they afford will prove of inestimable value for purposes of 
steam manufacture. 



Those in the eastern half of the country are estimated to cover an area of not less than 
225,000 square miles— nearly equal to the whole of the Western States north of the Ohio 
River and east of the Mississippi. The principal one extends along the western border 
of the Appalachian highlands, from New York to Alabama, covering nearly 100,000 square 
miles. Another, more than half as large, occupies southwestern Indiana and most of Illi- 
nois ; another, of great extent, occurs in Missouri and Iowa; and another, of several 
thousand square miles, in Michigan. 

Most of the coal derived from these fields is of a bituminous character. In some parts 
of the coal regions, especially the northern portion of the Appalachian field, springs of 
petroleum or rock-oil abound, the recent discovery and opening of which has proved of 
immense value in cheapening supplies for illuminating and other economical purposes. 
An extensive bed of anthracite coal, which affords most of the fuel for tbe cities of the 
Atlantic slope, exists in Pennsylvania, between the Blue Ridge and eastern branch of the 
Susquchannah. 

Salt springs are common along the western border of the Appalachian highlands and 
in the dry regions beyond the Mississippi. In Louisiana an extensive bed of rock-salt has 
been recently discovered, and numerous beds of like character arc believed to exist in the 
great table-lands of the West, especially where the systems of drainage arc imperfect. 

SOIL. 

The soil of the United States, except of tbe great table-land belt west of the 100th me- 
ridian, is in general remarkably fertile. Nowhere else in the temperate zones is there a 
region of equal extent which rivals in productiveness the eastern half of this country. The 
fertility of so great an area is due not only to its favorable mineral character in most parts, 
but also to an ample fall of rain over its whole surface, and to it3 immense level tracts 
suited to the retention of moisture, and which in the lapse of ages have become overspread 
to an extraordinary depth with vegetable mold. 

This fertility, however, is not without exception. Most of New England and of 
New York, north of tbe Mohawk River, lias a thin and stony soil, of inferior produc- 
tiveness, — being formed upon the older and harder rock — such as granite, gneiss, 
quartz, etc. But owing to the ruggedncss of these regions, many of the valleys, and 
especially the low tracts along the rivers, are amply enriched with alluvial deposits 
washed down from the hillsides, and thus are rendered well deserving of cultivation. A 
great part of the surface, however, is better suited to grazing than to agriculture. 

The low coastwise plain also which extends from the mouth of the Hudson River to the 
Rio Grande is. to a great extent, sandy and sterile ; but in many sections it contains beds 
of marl and other fertilizing earths which may he used to render it productive. The 
swamp-lands, moreover, which abound along the coast, are in many parts susceptible 
of drainage and cultivation ; and their vicinities, as well as the bordtrs of ihe rivers, pre- 
sent alluvial tracts of superior richness. 

The region of the Alleghanies is of course inferior in fertility to the level or undulating 
lowlands of the Mississippi valley; yet the hilly country, in most parts, abundantly re- 
wards cultivation, while the long Appalachian valley contains some of the best farming 
lands in the United States. 

The general character of the table-land region west of the 100th meridian— comprising 
the Western Steppes and Great Western Plateau— is that of marked sterility. This is due 
mainly to the lack of rain, especially during summer ; but in some parts the natural con- 
stitution of the soil is also unfavorable to productiveness. 

Near the mountains, however, and in tbe bottomlands along the rivers, there are many 
tracts suited to cultivation, while the neighboring sections generally support a plentiful herb- 
age and are well adapted to grazing. But more remote from these regions, except along 
the eastern border, the plains are strikingly barren ; and the hollows in some parts are 
covered with a saline or alkaline crust, caused by want of drainage and by the evaporation 
of water which collects in them fr>m the neighboring slopes, and thus is impregnated with 
the soluble matter of their soil. Nearer the mountains, where the supply of water is some- 
what more abundant, there arc many salt pools. The valleys known as Paris, between 
the i arallel ranges of the Rocky Mountains, arc remarkable for their beauty and fertility. 

Tbe Pacific coa^t-region is distinguished for the highly fertile intervals between its 
mountain spurs, which, owing to the peculiar favorableness of the climate, are almost 
unrivaled in their capacity for producing the smaller cereals, root-crops, and fruit. South 
of Monterey Bay, however, the country is somewhat arid ; and in many parts, especially 
where facilities for irrigation are scanty, is better suited to grazing than tillage. - 

VEGETATION. 

Owing to the great extent of its well-watered and fertile plains, this country is peculiarly 
rich in its vegetation. 

It is especially distinguished for the extent and variety of its forests. Nearly the whole 
ea tern section, from the MUsissippi to the Atlantic, is, in its native state, richly wooded. 

The western or Pacific slope, on the other hand, from the northern boundary to about 
the 40th parallel, except in the more arid districts, is also clothed with fine forests, and 
still farther south presents luxuriant wooded tracts along the maritime border. 

A marked contrast, however, appears between tbe forests of the east and west. In the 
north, on extensive belt, chiefly of white pine, of great economic value, reaches from the 
Mississippi valley to the Atlantic, its southern limit being in about the latitude of the 
northern shore of Lake Ontario. 

South of this belt, as far as to a little below the mouth of tbe Ohio River and Chesa- 
peake Bay, the forests are mainly of deefduous trees. These forests are remarkably 
mixed ; comprising maple, beech, oak, chestnut, hickory, ash, elm, birch, cherry, bass- 
wood, buckeye, etc., etc. In the richness of ihcir foliage, as variegated by autumnal tints, 
they are probably unrivaled in any section of the globe. 

Entering the warmer latitudes beiow the last-mentioned limit,* foliaceous or broad- 
leaved evergreens become common, and vegetation in general assumes a sub-tropical 

* This limit nearly coincides wilh the northern boundaries of Tennessee and North. 
Carolina, 



100 



APPENDIX I. 



character. Live-oaks appear along the Atlantic coast; cypress and gum trees grow 
numerous ; and soon the characteristic region of magnolias and laurel is reached. 

The dry lowlands of the Atlantic and Gulf slopes are overspread, to a great extent, 
with the long-leafed pitch-pine, one of the most picturesque and valuable timber trees 
of this section. 

Among other characteristic forms arc the southern cotton-wood, catalpa, bumelias, pal- 
metto, persimmon, and Chickasaw plum. Various species of oak, maple, beech, etc., 
abound in the uplands anil elsewhere. 

In the Peninsula of Florida, vegetation is more tropical. Mangroves appear in exten- 
sive thickets ; several characteristic fruits, among which is the Florida orange, are intro- 
duced ; and various straggling forms from the neighboring zone become more or less 
preva'ent 

It is evident from the foregoing that the forests of the eastern part of the United States 
are remarkable not only for their extent, but also for their variety. In fact, they have (l no 
parallel for the diversity of species collected in a growth of trunks of nearly the same size, 
and thriving on the same soil and in the same climate." 

The western slope of the country presents a vegetation strikingly dissimilar to that of the 
eastern. On the Pacific side, deciduous trees are decidedly repelled, and the number 
of their species is comparatively few. 

Of the leading forms prevalent in the eastern forests, the following are entirely absent 
in the western ; viz., magnolias, bass-wood, locust, and other pod-bearing trees, elms, wal- 
nuts, hickories, beeches, etc. The chestnut is represented merely by a single species, and 
the maples by only one or two small forms. 

Cone-bearing trees, on the contrary, except in the arid districts, are particularly favored, 
" affording th3 finest evergreen foresls known in the temperate latitudes. Many of these 
trees, in the moist and equable climates near the Pacific, are of gigantic size ; their height 
and vastness of trunk striking the beholder with astonishment. 

The pine family, especially, are remarkable in this respect. Among these, the Douglas 
spruce, the sugar-pine, a species of yellow pine, and the balsam-fir tower to a height 
of over 200 feet. A species of white cedar, also, has a similar size. 

But the majestic redwood family surpass all others. The common redwood grows to an 
altitude of from ISO to 300 feet, often with a thickness of 10 or 12 feet ; while the giant red- 
wood (confined to a single small locality in Califoroia) reaches the wonderful height 
of from 300 to 400 feet and a diameter of from 20 to 30 feet. These trees have no rivals in 
the existing vegetable kingdom. 

Among the latter species, there is a single prostrate trunk (known as the Monarch of the 
Forest), the top of which has been partly destroyed — probably by fire — which measures 
3G feet in diameter at the butt, and 110 feet in circumference. The length of the whole 
portions of the trunk is 300 feet, and the diameter at the small end 12 feet. From frag- 
ments in a line with the main stem, and apparently belonging to it, it is estimated that its 
full height when standing must have been from 450 to 500 feet. 

Turning our attention to a different field, it may be observed that notwithstanding the 
vast extent of forests in this country, there arc immense areas nearly or quite destitute 
of trees. Of this character are the dry regions of the Great Western Plateau and nearly 
the whole of the Steppes, except the bottom-lands along the rivers. Of the same descrip- 
tion, also, is a large part of the Mississippi lowlands, extending from the Steppes to the 
northwest corner of the Gulf of Mexico, and farther north, invading the central portion 
of the Mississippi valley nearly as far as the middle course of the Ohio Eiver. 

These treeless regions are called prairies. They are covered, for the most part, with 
coarse grass, intermixed on the table-lands— in the warm-temperate and cool regions— 
with deep-rooted shrubs, as the artemisia (inappropriately called sage*), and — in the sub- 
tropical and tropical regions — with similar shrubs and thick-leafed juicy plants, such as 
the cactus and yucca (or Spanish bayonet). 

The absence of trees on the table-lands is doubtless owing chiefly to the dryness of the 
climate and the consequent aridity of the soil. 

In the less elevated regions of the Mississippi valley it may be partly due to the same 
cause and partly to the extraordinary depth of the soil, which in many places probably 
renders the proportion of moisture retained near the surface insufficient for the support 
of a forest growth. But the treeless character of these plains is believed to be mainly 
owing to their visitation in former years by sweeping fires, which are peculiarly liable to 
originate on the dry grassy table-lands, and spread eastward as far as local conditions permit. 

The United States possesses a numerous assemblage of interesting grasses. Among the 
most remarkable is the tree-like cane, which forms extensive brakes or thickets along the 
Gulf of Mexico and in the moist alluvial lands on the borders of the rivers and elsewhere 
throughout the South. So dense are these brakes in many sections that they are absolutely 
impenetrable except with the aid of the hatchet. 

The adaptation of the United States to the production of different agricultural staples 
varies to a remarkable degree with iis soil and climate. In respect to several staples, it 
holds a rank atiaincd by no other country. Its capacity for yielding breadstuff's in the 
North and cotton in the South is unrivaled, while its suitableness to the growth of tobacco 
in the middle latitudes probably surpasses that of any other region of equal area. 

The more hardy cereals (maize, wheat, oats, rye, and barley) flourish throughout the 
agricultural sections. Maize, however, is the most characteristic staple, and by far the 
most important. It grows most luxuriantly in the Southern and Western States, and is 
of especial importance in the central portion of the Mississippi valley. In the maritime 
region of the Pacific, however, it thrives less successfully, and in many localities fails to 
mature, owing to the prolonged drought and'eool nights of summer. 

"Wheat and oats, which rank second and third in importance among cultivated cereals, 
grow best in the valleys along the Pacific, in the Western States north of the Missouri and 
Ohio rivers, and in the Middle States and those of the Southern States adjoining the latter. 
The yield of these grains per acre, however, is most abundant in the two former sections. 

Rice finds a congenial locality in the marshy tracts along the southern seaboard, par- 
ticularly in South Carolina and Georgia. 

* Arteinisia-tridentata. Many parts of the table-lauds, overspread with this plant, are 
termed " sage plains." 



Cotton flourishes chiefly south of the 35th parallel, in the States north of the Gulf of Mex- 
ico, or bordering the Atlantic. 

Tobacco has its most profitable range between the 3Gth and 40th parallels. [See tJtis range 
mi the map.] 

The potato is a characteristic product of the northern portion of the country, particu- 
larly of New England and the Middle States; also of the Pacific slope west of the Cascade 
Eange and Sierra Nevada. 

The batatas or sweet potato thrives in the warmer regions. 

Sugar-cane appears to have found only a few limited sections where it is a preferable 
crop, its culture thus far having been confined chiefly to that part of Louisiana projecting 
south of Mississippi. 

The portions of the United States well suited to the production of hay-crops or to grazing 
are of immense area. Throughout the fertile districts, except in the warmer parts of tho 
Southern States, the unplowed fields are overspread with a rich carpet of verdure which 
affords excellent pasturage during the warm months, or yields a valuable harvest for winter 
store. The profitableness of the latter may he inferred from its ranking third in value 
among the crops of the country, being surpassed in this respect only by corn and cotton. 

The dry table-lands, also, except in the most arid districts, afford good grazing during 
a large part of the year ; and in many localities where the grass is somewhat abundant, 
the summer drought causes it to cure or become hay while standing in the field ; so that 
ample pasturage is afforded (the snow being light) through all or nearly all winter. 

ANIMALS. 

The northern border of the United States is embraced in the district of fur-beariDg ani- 
mals, and the forest tracts of the northeast and northwest contain vaiious species which are 
much sought by the hunter and trapper. The most important on account of their furs are 
the otter, beaver, mink or American sable, marten, and musk-rat. There are also found 
in the same range the black bear, wolverine, Canada lynx, bay lynx or wild-cat, and wolf. 
Several of the above, however, as the Canada otter, black bear, and wild-cat, likewise 
dwell far south. The moose-deer exists in the extreme northeast. 

The eastern forest regions are inhabited by the common American deer, the American elk 
or stag (now very rare in this section), the Virginia opossum, raccoon, etc. The common 
American deer likewise frequents the grassy regions of the Great Central Plain. 

But in general the prairies have a fauna somewhat peculiar. Their most noted habitant 
is the American bison or buffalo, which roams in vast herds over the unfrequented tracts 
west of the Mississippi. The prairie-wolf, also, is especially characteristic of these plains. 
Upon the plateaus and within the Rocky Mountain district the American elk is again 
found; and in the same range the mule-deer, prong-buck, American badger, etc. 

The mountain sides are inhabited by the Eocky Mountain goat and big-horned sheep, the 
latter roving throughout the rugged highlands from the Western Steppes to the Pacific. 

The species already mentioned as belonging to the prairies are found both east and west 
of the Eocky Mountains. It must be remembered, however, that, as a whole, the faunas on 
opposite sides of this chain are different. Thus part of the ruminants, the gnawers, the 
insects, and all the mollusks are of distinct species. 

From the foregoing it will be observed that most of the principal ruminants are found 
west of the Mississippi, where the unfrequented grassy plains afford them abundant sub- 
sistence. The range of several, however, formerly extended much farther east — the buf- 
falo, for instance, having been known even upon some parts of the Atlantic coast. 

The largest and most powerful of American carnivora— the grizzly bear — has a similar 
range with the above, preying upon those whom feebleness or want of fleetness renders 
unable to escape. His chief home, however, is the oak and pine regions of the Western 
slope, where he finds an agreeable subsistence of acorns and pine-cones as well as flesh. 
The puma or cougar (known also as the panther or American lion, but unlike either the 
lion or panther of the Old World) frequents the same range as the grizzly bear; and, to a 
greater or less extent, wanders through nearly all the unsettled parts of the country. 

The United States is frequented by a great number and variety of migratory birds, the 
principal of which are wild geese, ducks, and pigeons. The wild turkey is common in the 
lowlands of the Mississippi valley. 

The principal birds of prey are various species of eagles, hawks, owls, and buzzards. 
The turkey-buzzard, in particular, is numerous in the southeast, where it frequents even 
the populous settlements, and serves as a valuable scavenger. 

The most noted reptiles are turtles, alligators, and rattlesnakes. Alligators infest the 
rivers, marshes, etc., of the warm regions in the east and southeast ; their range extending 
as far north on the coast of South Carolina as latitude S2° 80'. 

Here, as elsewhere, noxious insects abound in the heated districts. Mosquitoes, espe- 
cially, are an annoying pest, being so numerous about the rivers and marshes in some 
parts of the south as to render the vicinity uninhabitable. 

The coasts of this country are well supplied with fish. Cod, haddock, mackerel, her- 
ring, halibut, etc., are abundant. The inland waters are likewise well stocked ; white-fish 
abound in the Great Lakes ; and pike, trout, perch, etc., are common in both the large 

and small bodies of water. 

CONCLUSIONS. 

From the foregoing account <>f the physical geography of the United States, it is obvious 
that this country possesses within itself the naiural resources for an extraordinary mate- 
rial prosperity. The remarkable fertility of its soil; theunequaled richness of its mineral 
deposits; the ample facilities for manufactures afforded by the numerous rapid streams 
which descend from the uplands along its coasts, or by the inexhaustible supplies of 
coal distributed through its interior; and the extraordinary advantages for commerce 
presented not only by its extensive coast line and its vast network of inland waters, but also 
by its broad plains easily crossed by railways or trenched by canals — all combine to render 
it of surpassing fitness for the abode of man. 

Hence, peopled in the main by a highly cultivated race, the varieties of which are fast 
becoming intermixed here, and thus are producing an unusually vigorous stock, it remains 
only to develop these resources under a just and wise policy in order to altain a national 
greatness unparalleled in history. 



APPENDIX II. 



102 



APPENDIX II. 




CHIEF PRODUCTIONS OF THE EARTH, ETC. 



103 



QUESTIONS ON THE MAP. 

Note. — As many "branches of industry consist in a mere development 
of the natural resources or capabilities of the regions where they are 
prosecuted, they show forth, in a striking manner, the physical rela- 
tions of these regions to man. A reference, therefore, to the princi- 
pal seats of such branches of industry, as exhibited on the map, will 
be found useful in the present connection. The following questions, 
although necessarily incomplete, will suffice to show how the investi- 
gation of the subject may be pursued. 

What fishery is the leading branch of industry in the 
high northern latitudes ? What valuable fossil remains 
are obtained in the northern part of Siberia? What does 
the presence of this fossil together with accompanying 
relics show ? Ans. That northern Siberia, at an earlier 
geological period, was inhabited by a species of elephant 
which has since become extinct. The obtaining of what 
vegetable products near the Arctic Circle, in Norway and 
Sweden, shows that Western Europe has a mild climate 
in the high latitudes ? What rich materials for warm 
clothing are obtained chiefly in the cold regions of North 
America and Asia ? Why are the furs from these regions 
preferable to those from warmer districts ? Ans. Because 
they are thicker and finer, nature having provided a supe- 
rior covering to protect the animals of these regions from 
the cold. 

What metal, in the New World, is obtained very abund- 
antly from Chile and the vicinity of Lake Superior ? 
What, principally from the western part of the United 
States ? What precious stone from Brazil ? For its 
yield of what minerals is Great Britain especially distin- 
guished ? For what the Ural mountain-region, between 
Russia and Siberia ? For what precious metal is Australia 
famous ? 

What material for the manufacture of dress-goods, etc., 
is most abundantly produced in the southern part of the 
United States ? What rich material for the same purpose 
is largely produced in the Mediterranean countries of 
Europe ? What other fibrous material is produced in 
Spain, of the finest quality ? For the yield of what fibrous 
materials is Russia especially noted ? In what parts of 
Asia is silk an important product ? In what portion of 
Africa is wool a noted staple ? In what great island is its 
yield likewise of much importance ? In what portion of 
South America is it a chief staple ? What is the general 
character of the great wool-growing regions ? Ans. They 
are regions of a dry climate, chiefly suited to p>astoral em- 
ployments. What else is generally a principal product of 
the same regions ? Ans. Hides. 

In what country of South America is coffee produced 
more abundantly than elsewhere in the world ? Of what 
part of the world is it an indigenous product ? Ans. Of 
the uplands of Eastern Africa. In what archipelago are 
spices most abundantly obtained ? In what peninsula of 
southern Asia is opium chiefly produced ? 

In what desert does rock-salt abound ? How does the 
dryness of the desert favor the formation of salt beds ? 
Ans. By evaporating the moisture that collects in the hol- 
lows, and which brings thither in solution saline matter 
gathered from the neighboring soil, leaving it behind as 
the aqueous particles p>ass off into the atmosphere. 



CHIEF PRODUCTIONS OF THE EARTH, AND THE COUNTRIES 
WHERE THEY ARE PRINCIPALLY PRODUCED. 

Almonds Syrin, Tripoli, Barbary. Spain, Portugal. 

Aloes Socotra, Arabia, Barbadoes, South Africa. 

Allspice Jamaica. 

Amethysts . . .Brazil, Siberia, Ceylon. ' 

Arrow Root. . . .South America, Erst and "West Indies, South Sea Islands. 

Barley Between latitude 69 J° and 45° Eastern Hemisphere, British Amer- 
ica, and Australia. 

Bread Fruit. . . . Polynesia, East Indies. 

Cassia East and West Indies. 

Chestnuts Spain, Italy, Corsica, Turkey. 

Cinnamon Ceylon, Cochin China. 

Citron Madeira, Polynesia. 

Cloves Molucca Islands. 

Coal Britain, Belgium, United States, Australia. 

Cochineal Mexico, Central America, West India Islands. 

Cocoa West Indies, South America. 

Cocoa Nuts . ..Ceylon, Maldive Islands, Siam, Bengal, Brazil, Polynesia, Africa. 

Coffee Arabia, Java, West Indies, Brazil, Mauritius. 

Copper Britain, Chile, United States, Sweden, Siberia, Persia, Japan. 

Cork France, Spain, Portugal, Italy, Barbary. 

Cotton Grows naturally in Asia, Africa, and America ; it is much cultivated 

in the warmer parts of the United States and elsewhere. 

Currants Ionian Islands and Greece yield the small dried g'apes commonly 

called currants. 

Dates Egypt, Barbary, Arabia, Persia. 

Diamonds Brazil, Borneo, India. 

Ebony Mauritius, Madagascar, Ceylon. 

Emerald Peru. 

Figs Turkey, Greece, France, Spain, Italy, North Africa. 

Flax Russia, Egypt, Ireland, Netherlands, New South Wales. 

Furs British and Russian America, Russia, United States. 

Gamhoge Siam, Camhodia. 

Gold United States, Australia, India, Russia, Africa, Hungary, Saxony, 

Equador. 

Hemp Russia, Italy, Philippine Islands, Brazil, Britain, Egypt, North 

America. 

Indigo East and West Indies, Guinea. 

Ipecacuhana. . .Brazil, South America. 

Iron Most countries, particularly Britain and the United States. 

Ivory Africa, East Indies. 

Lead Britain, United States, Germany, Spain. 

Lemons Syria, Persia, Greece, Italy, Spain, Portugal, Azores, West Indies. 

Mace East and West Indies. 

Mahogany West Indies, Central America. 

Maize, or In- ) America, from Canada to La Plata, South Europe, Central Africa, 
dian Corn. 5 Australia. 

Maple Sugar. . . Canada, United States. 

Marble Italy, Greece, Egypt, Britain, France, United States. 

Mercury Spain, Austria, California, Peru, China. 

Millet Germany, Poland, India, Africa. 

Molasses West Indies, Mauritius, Louisiana. 

Morocco Levant, Barbary, Spain, Flanders. 



i South Europe, South Asia. 
Silk Worms ) 



Nutmeg Moluccas, Sumatra, Penang, Borneo. 

Oats Chiefly grown in latitudes north of Paris, though cultivated in 

Bengal as low as the 25th degree. 

Olives Syria, Greece, Africa, Spain, Italy, Brazil, Ionian Islands. 

Opals Hungary, East Indies. 

Oranges The Azores, Spain, Portugal, China, Italy, Malta, Polynesia, West 

Indies. 

Palm Oil Western Africa, Fernando Po, Brazil, Hindoostan. 

Pepper East and West India Islands, French Guayana. 

Pine Apples . . . Mexico, West Indies, Hindoostan, Polynesia. 

' £ Tropical America (especially in Mexico), Polynesia, East Indies. 
Bananas. . . 3 

Platina Spain, Asiatic Russia, South America. 

Pomegranates .Persia, South Europe, Tropical Asia, West Indies. 



104 



APPENDIX II. 



Prunes South France. 

Kaisins Smyrna, Valencia, Malaga, Italy. 

Rice India, China, West Indies, United States, Italy, Africa. 

Ruby Ava, South America, Siberia, Egypt. 

Rye The Bread-corn of Germany and Russia. 

Sago East Indies. 

Sapphire Ava, Bohemia, Saxony, France. 

Silver Mexico, Peru, United States, Hungary, Saxony, Siberia. 

Sponge Found upon the rocks of the Mediterranean and Red Sea. 

Sugar Cane. ... Tropical America, East and West Indies, Louisiana, Sicily, 
Canary Islands, Polynesia, Africa. 

-f . _ . I France, Belgium, Germany, Prussia, Russia. 
Beet Root. ) 

Tamarinds . . . .East and West Indies, Arabia, Egypt, Cuba, Brazil. 

Tapioca South America, West Indies. 

Tea China, Japan, Assam. 

Tin Cornwall, Devon, Galicia, Erz-gebirge Mountains in Saxony, 

Bohemia, Malay, China, Island of Banca in East Indies. 
Tobacco Tropical America, United States, Turkey, Asia, Prussia, 

France, Australia. 

Topaz South America, India, Egypt, Siberia, Mexico. 

Turquoise Nishapore in Persia. 

Vine South Europe, Canary Islands, Africa, North America in lat- 
itude 46°, Brazil. 
Wheat We are in total ignorance where this important grain was 

first cultivated ; some suppose in Northern Africa. It is 

raised in almost every part of the temperate zones. 

Little is grown beyond latitude 58° in Europe, but on 

the Alps it ripens to the height of 3,500 feet above the 

level of the sea. 
Wines Port. — Province of Upper Douro, in Portugal. Sherry. 

Xeres, near Cadiz, in Spain. Claret. — Bordeaux, in France. 

Champagne. — From a province in France of the same name. 

Burgundy. — Ditto. Madeira. — From the Madeira Islands. 

Malmsey. — Ditto. Teneriffe. — From the island of Teneriffe. 

Marsala. —Sicily . Cape. — From South Africa. 
Yams Africa, South America, Polynesia, Australia. 



EXPORTS OF COUNTRIES. 

EUROPE. 

Russia Timber, deals, tallow, corn, hemp, flax, furs, linseed, 

hides, leather, pitch, tar, wax, feathers, pearl-ashes. 

Spain and Nor- ) Timber, deals, iron, pitch, tar, turpentine, resin, oak- 
way f bark, juniper-berries, and fish. 

Germany Wheat in large quantities from Dantzic ; hemp, flax, wool, 

bark, amber, Rhenish wines, hops, toys, etc. 

Denmark Hogs, rape-seed, fish, and feathers. 

Holland and ) Butter, cheese, spirits, flower roots, madder, hops, lace 
Belgium 5 and linen, clocks, toys, etc. 

France Wines, brandy, fruits, silks and gloves, perfumery, trin- 
kets, and fancy articles. 

Spain Wine, fruits, olive oil, cork, wool. 

Portugal Wine, fruits, cork. 

Italy Raw and manufactured silks, fruits, olive oil, straw-plait, 

cheese, maccaroni, vermicelli, sulphur, pumice stone, 
marble, paper rags. 

Greece Raw silk, dried fruits. 

Turkey Leather, raw silks, figs. 

ASIA. 
Hindoostan. Silk, opium, sugar, coffee, pepper, indigo, rice, lac-dye, 

sal ipeter, precious stones. 
Birman Empire. .Teak timber, rice, indigo, gums, drugs, palm sugar, cotton 

goods, silk, varnish. 
China Tea, silk, cotton goods, porcelain, lacquered ware, gums, 

paper, drugs. 
Japan Silks and cotton goods, drugs, spices, varnish, porcelain, 

rice, cedar. 



Persia Silks, carpets, cotton goods, shawls, sugar, rice, dried 

fruits, leather, drugs, tobacco. 

Arabia Coffee, aloes, gums, myrrh, frankincense, perfumes, drugs. 

Turkeyin Asia Coffee, carpets, silks, fruits, drugs, opium. 

Siberia Metals, precious stones, leather, and furs. 

Kamtchatka Furs and dried fish. 

Asiatic islands Cinnamon, cloves, nutmegs, pepper, ginger, sago, cam- 
phor. 

AFRICA. 

Mauritius Palm oil, teak timber, aloes, dye-woods, ostrich feathers, 

ivory, gold, sugar. 

Morocco Leather, goat-skins, gums, fruits. 

Algiers and Tripoli. Ostrich feathers, dates, wax, wool. 

Egypt Cotton, indigo, drugs, fruits, wheat, rice. 

Madeira Islands Wine, fruits. 

Canary Islands Wine, fruits, silks, barilla. 

NORTH AMERICA 

Canada Timber, wheat, pot and pearl ashes, furs, fish. 

Newfoundland Cod and other fish. 

Nova Scotia Timber, dried fish, plaster of Paris. 

Hud. Bay Territory. .Furs. 

United States : 

Eastern States . . . Cotton and woolen goods, boots and shoes, metallic 

wares, lumber, beef, fish, oil. 

Middle States Grain, flour, dairy produce, iron merchandise, clothing, 

coal, rock oil. 

Southern States . .Cotton, tobacco, lumber, naval stores, rice, sugar. 

United States : 

Western States. . . Grain, flour, beef, pork, lumber, copper, lead. 

Territories and | _ ,, .. ... „ 
t, .,. m i 1" Gold, silver, timber, furs. 
Pacific States ) 

Mexico Silver, cochineal, vanilla, sarsaparilla, hides. 

SOUTH AMERICA. 

Caraccas Cocoa, coffee, indigo, tobacco. 

Guayana Sugar, rum, cotton, coffee, tobacco, indigo, cayenne 

pepper. 
Brazil Cotton, sugar, coffee, tobacco, dye-woods; drugs from 

the northern provinces ; gold and diamonds from 

the middle ; and wheat, hides, and tallow from the 

southern. 

Buenos Ayres Gold and silver, hides, beef, and tallow. 

Peru Silver, gold, alapaca hair, cinchona, hides, guano. 

Chile Silver, gold, and copper from the northern provinces ; 

wheat and hemp from the southern. 
West Indies Sugar, coffee, rum, molasses, cotton, pimento, ginger, 

logwood, mahogany, cocoa, cochineal, cigars. 



TRADE ROUTES. 



The navigation of the ocean constitutes an important branch of industry, 
in which a greater or less number of people of all civilized countries are en- 
gaged. The most wealthy and powerful nations are those which have the 
most extended foreign commerce ; as, Great Britain, France, the United 
States, Holland, Denmark, Sweden, and Russia. Commerce has always been 
a fruitful source of individual and national prosperity. 

In former times, maritime pursuits were very slowly conducted. This was 
owing to the imperfect construction of vessels (which were built more with 
reference to strength than qualities of fast sailing), and to the prevailing 
ignorance of the winds and currents of the ocean, and how the mariner might 
best avail himself of them in steering his vessel from one part of the world 
to another. 

The winds and currents of the ocean have formed subjects of the most 
careful study and research, the results of which have been of the greatest 
utility to all engaged in navigating the sea. No seaman is qualified to 
direct the course of a ship who does not know where prevailing winds and 
currents are to be met with, and how to turn them to the best advantage 
in prosecuting his voyage. 



METALLIC PRODUCTIONS. 



105 



On this subject Captain Basil Hall remarks : " It is one of the chief points 
of a seaman's duty to know where to find a fair wind, and where to fall in 
with a favorable current. If we take a globe and trace on it the shortest 
route by sea to India, and then fancy that such must be tho best course to 
follow, we shall be very much mistaken. And yet this is very much what 
our ancestors actually did, till time and repeated trials, and multitudinous 
failures, gradually taught them where to seek for winds, and how to profit 
by them when found. ' ' 

Map 6 exhibits the tracks usually taken by ships proceeding from New 
York acrcss the Atlantic, Pacific, and Indian oceans. The outward and home- 
ward tracks are distinguished by arrows. 

Kotjte from Kf.w Toek to Sax Fraxcisco. — The route marked on the 
map shows the course taken by vessels which have made the quickest pas- 
sages between these ports. The pupil will notice that it is not the shortest 
as regards distance. Between New York and the point where it crosses the 
equator (on or near the 80th meridian' 1 , and also between Cape Horn and San 
Francisco, it diverges very considerably from a direct line. 

To understand this route, and others marked on the map, it is necessary 
for the learner to bear in mind the direction of the prevailing winds as ex- 
plained in Lesson TV., Part III. From the parallel of about 30° north 
and south, nearly to the equator, there are two zones of perpetual winds, 
namely : the zone of northeast trade-winds on this side, and of southeast 
trade-winds on that. Now, a vessel sailing from New York to Cape Horn is 
necessarily obliged to pass through these zones. Before striking the north- 
easterly trades, she must make a good deal of easting, that is, proceed to 
the east ; for if this is not done they would, perhaps, carry the vessel too 
close to the "Windward Islands and the northern coast of South America, so 
that she would find it very difficult to double Cape St. Eoque. 

After crossing the equator, the route extends through the South Atlantic, 
at no great distance from the eastern coast of South America, passing inside 
the Falkland Islands. The most difficult part of the route is that which ex- 
tends from the 50th parallel in the South Atlantic to the same parallel in the 
Pacific. In this part of the voyage is performed the labor of doubling Cape 
Horn, a very troublesome operation in consequence of the continuous cold 
westerly winds which sailors always find there. The best months for doubling 
the Horn are our winter anl summer, excepting July. October appears to 
be the most unpropitious month for the passage. 

After reaching the 50th parallel, the California vessel stands far out into 
the Pacific at a great distance from the coast. This is done to get the south- 
east trades in their full force, for, it is to be remembered, these winds are 
considerably impeded by the continent, and are the strongest and steadiest 
at a distance from shore. On passing the region of calms, near the equator, 
the zone of the northeast trades is met with, and in crossing this belt, the 
track, instead of leading directly to San Francisco, continues on still in a 
northwest direction until the vessel, in about the 35th parallel north lati- 
tude, has got beyond the influence of these trades ; then easting is made and 
the port reached. 6 

Returning from San Francisco, a vessel pursues a course nearly due 
south, between the meridians of 120° and 125° west longitude, to about 
the 50th parallel south latitude, where westerly winds are met, which 
Tapidly bear her past Cape Horn into the South Atlantic. Here her course 
is rather slow and irregular until Cape St. Roque is reached. At the latter 
point she enters the strong current which sweeps westwardly from the 
Gulf of Guinea, and flows along the northern coast of South America. 
(Art. 364, 365.) From the equator to New York the track is very nearly 
straight. 

From New York to Port Philip, Australia. — The track of vessels 
bound from New York to Australia is the same as that pursued by ships 
bound for California, until the 20th parallel south latitude is reached. In- 
deed, all vessels sailing for the South Atlantic, whether their destination he 
Bio Janeiro, San Francisco, Cape of Good Hope, or Port Philip, arc advised 
to follow about the same course until they have passed the latitude of Cape 
St. Roque. 

The following remarks relating to this route are taken from the ' ' Sailing 
Directions :" "The gold ports of Australia, whether the distance be mea- 
sured via Cape Horn, or by the way of the Cape of Good Hope, are between 

* The track above de3cribed is sometimes departed from, more or less, by vessels bound 
from New York to San Francisco ; but it is the one recommended in the " Sailing Direc- 
tions" It is very nearly the course ta ken by the shi p "Flying Cloud" on the trip she made 
in 90 days— the quickest p-ssage ever performed between these ports. 



12,000 and 13,000 miles from the Atlantic ports of the United States or Eu- 
rope. The best way for vessels in the Australian trade, from Europe or 
America, via the Atlantic, to go, is by doubling the Cape of Good Hope ; 
and the best way to come is, via Cape Horn ; and for this reason, viz. : The 
prevailing winds in the extra-tropical regions of the southern hemisphere 
are from the northwest, which of course makes fair winds for the out- 
ward bound around the Capo of Good Hope, and fair winds for the 
homeward bound around Cape Horn. Here, all is plain sailing ; vessels 
homeward bound should steer by the shortest cut for Cape Horn, and the 
outward bound, after doubling the Cape of Good Hope, should shape their 
course as direct for the port of destination as the land and winds will per- 
mit them."-' 

Many of the other routes, as marked on the map, appear to be very cir- 
cuitous, and some of them are actually so ; but they are such as the long 
experience of seamen have found to be the best, and such, too, as would bo 
pursued, without much experience by a commander of a vessel who was 
fully acquainted with the regular movements of the air and ocean. The 
limits of this book do not admit of a further explanation of the tracks of 
vessels. By perusing Lesson XVI. , Part II. , on the Currents of the Ocean, 
and also Lesson IY., Part HI., on the Permanent Winds, the learner may 
be able to understand why particular deviations from a direct line are 
made in the several routes marked on the map. 



METALLIC PRODUCTION'S. 



Of the great number of metallic substances found in the earth, the most 
useful are gold, silver, mercury, tin, copper, zinc, lead, and iron.f 

Metals are deposited in veins or fissures of rocks, in masses, in beds, and 
sometimes in gravel and sand. Most of the metals are found in veins ; a 
few, as gold and tin, iron and copper, are disseminated through the rocks, 
though rarely. The veins are cracks or fissures in rocks, seldom in a straight 
line, yet they maintain a general direction, and sometimes extend to an un- 
fathomable depth. 

Metals are peculiar to particular rocks : gold and tin are most plentiful in 
granite and the rocks lying immediately above it ; copper is deposited in 
various slate formations ; lead is found in the mountain-limestone system ; 

iron abounds in the coal strata ; 
and silver occurs in almost all these 
formations ; its ores being frequent- 
ly combined with those of other 
metals, especially of lead and cop- 
per. 

When a mine is opened, a shaft 
like a well is sunk perpendicularly 
from the surface of the ground, 
and from it horizontal galleries are 
dug at different levels according to 
the direction of the metallic veins. 
When mines extend very far in 
a horizontal direction, it becomes 
necessary to sink more shafts, which 
are connected together by horizon- 
tal galleries. Shafts are from eight 
to twelve feet square, and are usu- 
ally walled up with timber or stone 
to prevent the sides from caving in. 
shaft. q-jie water which fil tratcs through 

the earth would soon collect into a mine and put a stop to the work, were 




* This work has been prepared for several years under the direction of the Superin- 
tendent of the National Observatory at -Washington. It is designed to accompany and 
explain the " Wind and Current CJiarts," issued from the same source. Both have been 
published at 'he expense of the United States Government, and distributed gratuitously 
to the commanders of all vessels who have pledged themselves to keep a journal of their 
voyages, and, on their return, to transmit the same to the National Observatory. 

■f Thirty-live metals are now known : they are gold, silver, platinum, copper, lead, tin, 
iron, zinc, arsenic, bismu'b, antimony, nickel, quicksilver, manganese, cadmium, cerium, 
cobalt, iridium, uranium, chrome, lantanium, molybdenum, c'oiumbium, osmium, palla- 
dium, pelapium, tantalum, tellurium, rhodium, titanium, vanadium, tungsten, dydynium, 
ferbium, orbium. 



106 



APPENDIX II. 



not adequate means employed to remove it. This is done in two ways : 
first, by digging a horizontal gallery (called an adil-level) from the mine to 




MODE OP OPENING A MINE. 

some adjacent valley ; in this way is drained all that part of the work 
which lies above ; and, secondly, by the use of pumps for drawing out the 
water from that part of the mine which is below the adit-level, or drain. 
Many of these drains are of great length, and are dug at great expense. 
One of these, in the mining region of Cornwall, England, begins in a valley 
near the sea, and a very little above its level, and goes through all the 
neighboring mines, which it drains to that depth, and with all its ramifica- 
tions is thirty miles long. 

The mode of raising ores varies with the depth of the mine. For a dis- 
tance of fifty feet, or even one hundred, the ore and rubbish may be raised 
to the surface by the simple windlass, worked by hand, on which a rope is 
so wound that one bucket descends while the other ascends. As soon, how- 
ever, as the depth of the shaft becomes more considerable, it is necessary to 
resort to horse or steam power for raising the ore. The common machine 




MODE OF HOISTING ORES. 

used for this purpose is called a whim ; as usually constructed when worked 
by horse power, it is represented in the annexed cut. A steam-whim is 
generally used when the shaft has a depth of more than two hundred feet. 

Note— The author is indebted for the following facts, relating: to the distribution of 
metals, chiefly to the able work of J. D. Whitney, Esq., entitled, " Metallic Wealth op 
the United States." 

DISTRIBUTION OF GOLD. 

In the United States. — The United States contains three principal gold- 
fields ; viz., the Appalachian gold-field, the Rocky Mountain gold-field, and 
the Sierra Nevada gold-field ; but they are of very unequal importance. 
That of the Atlantic slope, the "Appalachian gold-field," has been worked 
to a moderate extent for about forty years ; the others are of comparatively 
recent discovery, but have yielded vastly more than the former. 

The Appalachian gold-field extends from Georgia, in a northeasterly di- 
rection to Maryland, and is developed in the following counties : in Georgia, 
in Carroll, Cobb, Cherokee, Lumpkin, and Habersham counties ; in Soutk 
Carolina, through the whole northwestern corner of the State, especially in 
the following districts : Abbeville, Pickens, Spartanburg, Union, York, 
Lancaster ; in North Carolina, in Mecklenburg, Rutherford, Cabarras, Rowan, 
Davidson, Guildford, and Rockingham ; thence through Virginia, in Pitt- 
sylvania, Campbell, Buckingham, Fluvanna, Louisa, Spottsylvania, Orange, 
Culpepper, Fauquier ; in Maryland, Montgomery County. Gold has also 
been found in Canada on the Du Loup and Chaudiere rivers. 

The Rocky Mountain gold-field is known to be of extraordinary richness ; 



although as yet it is but imperfectly explored. The first noteworthy dis- 
coveries of gold within its limits were made in 1858, in the vicinity of 
Pike's Peak : since which, extensive auriferous regions have been devel- 
oped on each side of the chain, both to the north and south — thus 
calling into political existence the new Territories of Colorado, Idaho, and 
Montana. 

The Sierra Nevada gold-field is the most productive in the United States, 
and, compared with what we know of other similar regions, it is perhaps 
the richest in the world. It was first discovered in 1848, and it is calcu- 
lated that, up to the end of 18G8, it had yielded the enormous sum of nearly 
eight hundred million dollars, and that the annual product is now about 
fifty million dollars. This rich mineral region is in the great valley of Cali- 
fornia, which has a length of about 500 miles, and a breadth of from 50 to 
100. It is drained by two principal livers, — the Sacramento and the San 
Joaquin, the former flowing south, and the latter north. The gold is most 
commonly obtained in fine particles, and scales or flattened grains, and is ob- 
tained by washings, or the separation of the metal from the earthy substances 
with which it is mixed. It is also procured from veins of quartz by crush- 
ing the solid rock. Lumps or "nuggets" are not common, and rarely ex- 
ceed a few pounds in weight. 

In Foreign Countries.— Of the foreign countries, those most productive 
of gold are Australia, the Russian Empire, South Asia, the East Indies, 
Equador, New Guinea, Mexico. Brazil, and the Austrian Empire. 

The Australian gold district is, next to that of California, by far the most 
productive of any known. The existence of gold there was first made 
known in May, 1851. The gold region embraces the southeast corner 
of Australia. The yield, for several years, exceeded that in the United 
States, but of late has considerably diminished. The gold of the Russian 
Empire is obtained almost entirely from the eastern slope of the Ural Mount- 
ains, from the vicinity of the Altai Mountains, and from the Caucasus. It 
is supposed that the countries of Russia yield gold to the value of about 
thirty million dollars annually. 

DISTRIBUTION OF SILVER. 

In the United States. — Extensive silver mines have lately been opened 
in Nevada and Arizona, and are yielding large returns. The silver fur- 
nished by this country formerly came mostly from the native gold of Cali- 
fornia, with which silver is alloyed. From this source a considerable amount 
is still obtained. 

In Other Countries. — The countries particularly distinguished for their 
extensive yield of silver are Mexico, Peru, Chile, Bolivia, aud Spain. Mex- 
ico is by far the richest in mines of this metal, from which, it is estimated, 
about thirty-five million dollars worth are now annually obtained — an 
amount far greater than the yield of any other mines in the world. 

The province of Guanaxuato is supposed to furnish about one half the 
amount of silver produced in Mexico. In Peru, the richest mines are at Pasco, 
on the Andes, over 13,000 feet above the sea. Besides the Pasco mines, 
which are the richest in the world, there are numerous other mining dis- 
tricts in Peru, especially in the province of Pataz, Huamanchuco, Caxa- 
marca, and Hualgayoc. The richest silver mines of Chile are those of Co- 
piapo; those of Bolivia are at Potosi, more than 16,000 feet above the 
sea-level. Of the silver furnished by Europe, that of Spain, Russia, and 
Great Britain is derived almost exclusively from the working of silver-lead 
ores. The only mining districts of importance in Europe, in which silver 
ores are worked by themselves, are those of Hungary and Transylvania, of the 
Erzebirge in Saxony and Bohemia, and of Kongsberg in Norway. 

DISTRIBUTION OF MERCURY. 

In the United States. — No mercury is known to have been found east 
of the Mississippi River. It is produced in greater quantity than in any other 
part of the world from a mine at New Almaden, California, in one of the 
side valleys of the San Jose. 

In Foreign Countries. — Nearly all the mercury supplied by Europe is 
obtained from the mines of Almaden in Spain, and Idria in the Austrian 
Empire. The mines of Almaden are situated in the province of La Mancha, 
near the frontier of Estramadura. These mines have been worked longer 
than any others in the world ; they were known to the Greeks at least 700 
years before the Christian era. The present yield of the Spanish mercury 
mines is about two and a half million of pounds per annum, or but little 
short of that of the California mines. Mercury is obtained from several 



DISTRIBUTION" OF MET AL S. — PRODUCT OP MINES. 



107 



localities in South America, but chiefly from the mines of Huancavelica, in 
Peru, which yield about 200,000 pounds per annum. 

DISTRIBUTION OF TIN. 

In the Umted States. — Tin, which is used in the manufacture of tin 
plates, is nowhere obtained in the United States in any great amount. The 
only locality in the eastern part of this country where this ore has been 
found in any considerable quantity, is at Jackson, in Carroll County, New 
Hampshire, but it has not been obtained there to such extent as to render 
its manufacture profitable. 

In Foreign Countries. — The most productive tin mining region in the 
world is in Cornwall, England. The Cornish mines have been worked from 
a very early period, the metal from which formed an article of traffic with 
the Phoenicians and Greeks before the time of our Saviour. It is estimated 
that about 7,000 tons of tin are annually made from the ores of these mines. 
The most valuable tin mines on the continent of Europe arc those of Erz°-e- 
birge, which are partly in Saxony and partly in Bohemia. One of the richest 
deposits of tin known is in the province of Tenasserim, in the Malayan 
peninsula. The best quality of tin is obtained from the island of Banco., 
at the extremity of the Malacca peninsula. 

DISTRIBUTION" OF COPPER. 

In the United States.— Copper is, next to gold and iron, the most im- 
portant metal in the United States. The richest copper mining district in 
this country is that of Lake Superior. The occurrence of native copper on 
this lake was known to the Jesuit. Fathers, who, in the latter half of the 
seventeenth century, traveled extensively in that Tegion. The mines were 
not extensively worked until after the year 1844, when the country was 
ceded to the United States by the Chippewa Indians, and opened to settle- 
ment. Since that time, numerous companies have been organized, and 
large amounts of stock contributed, for the purpose of opening and working 
mines in this region. The principal mines are those of Kewenaw Point, 
Isle Royale, Ontonagon River, and Portage Lake. The Cliff Mine of Kewe- 
naw Point has been worked for the longest period, and has yielded the great- 
est amount of metal. 

Copper deposits are found at numerous localities in the valley of the. Mis- 
sissippi, — those in the neighborhood of Mineral Point, Wisconsin, being the 
best known. They are found also in the region which extends along the 
western slope of the Appalachian chain of mountains from New Hampshire 
to Georgia. The principal localities in this district occur at or near the fol- 
lowing places: Warren, in New Hampshire; Orange, in Vermont; Bristol, 
Manchester, Litchfield, and Plymouth, in Connecticut; Belleville, Griggs- 
town, Brunswick, Woodbridge, Greenbrook, Somerville, and Flemington, 
in New Jersey ; Montgomery and Chester counties, in Pennsylvania ; Liberty 
and New London, in Maryland; Fauquier County, in Virginia; Greensboro, 
in North Carolina ; and Polk County, in Tennessee. 

In Foreign Countries. — The most noted copper mines of foreign countries 
are those of Chile, in South America, where copper is the most important 
product The principal mines are located at Carrisal, north of the valley 
of Huasco ; and at San Juan and La Higuera, between Huasco and Co- 
quimbo. Numerous others are worked in the vicinity of Copiapo. The 
annual yield of copper in Chile is over 20,000 tons. The copper mines of 
Cornwall and Devonshire, in England, are highly celebrated ; and have been 
worked longer, and have produced more of this metal than any other mines 
in the world. They are supposed to yield about 14,000 tons annually. 

The other principal copper mining districts are those of the Ural Mount- 
ains and the Caucasus, in the Russian Empire; Mansfield, in Prussia; Upper 
Hungary, in Austria; and Namaqua Land, in Southwestern Africa. Copper 
is also obtained in Norway, Sweden, Spain, and in the East Indies, Japan, 

Australia, and Cuba. 

DISTRIBUTION OF ZINC. 

In toe United States. — The ores of zinc are distributed over the United 

States in great abundance. Some of the more important localities are at or 

near the following places ; Easton, in New Hampshire; Wartsboro, in Sulli- 



van County, New York; Sussex County, New Jersey; and Friedensvillc, in 
Lehigh County, Pennsylvania. Of the above mines, those in New Jersey and 
Pennsylvania have, as yet, yielded by far the greatest amount of this metal. 
The ores of zinc are plentifully distributed through the lead mines of the 
Mississippi valley. 

In Foreign Countries.. — Zinc is procured in Great Britain, Austria, and 
Poland ; but the countries particularly distinguished for extensive zinc 
mines are Belgium and Prussia, which, together, yield more than eight 
tenths of all that is manufactured in the world. The great Belgian zinc- 
works are in the province of Liege. The principal zinc district of Prussia 
is in the province of Upper Silesia, which produces nine tenths of the whole 
amount of this metal furnished by Prussia. 

DISTRIBUTION OF LEAD. 

Ix the United States. — The lead mines of this country are abundantly 
scattered over its surface, and have yielded a larger amount in value of this 
metal than of any other, with the exception of iron, gold, and copper. 
The most productive mines are those of the Upper Mississippi lead re- 
gion ; but there are numerous localities in the Atlantic States where con- 
siderable amounts of lead have been obtained. The most noted of the lead 
districts in the latter division are those of Eossie, in St. Lawrence County, 
Ancram, in Columbia County, Northeast, in Dutchess County, New York; 
Middletown, in Connecticut ; and Christie and Montgomery counties, in Penn- 
sylvania. 

The great lead deposits of the Mississippi valley are known as the Upper 
Mississippi and the Missouri mines. The first of these divisions compre- 
hends the lead region lying in the southwestern portion of Wisconsin and 
including a small part of the adjacent States of Illinois and Iowa. The 
principal mining centers of this division are Galena, in Illinois; Mineral 
Point, in Wisconsin; and Dubuque, in Iowa. The Mississippi runs along the 
western edge of this tract, and the course of the Wisconsin River is nearly 
parallel with the northern line, and distant from it only a few miles. The 
mines of this division yield annually upward of 13,000 tons. The second 
division embraces the mines of the State of Missouri, lying principally south 
of the Missouri River. The principal mines are in Washington County, near 
Big River and Mineral Creek. 

In Foreign Countries. — Lead mines are distributed through most of 
the countries of Europe, but those of Great Britain, France, and Spain are 
by far the most productive. The most extensive lead mining districts of 
Great Britain are in Cardiganshire and' Montgomeryshire in Wales, and 
at Alston Moor, where the three counties of Northumberland, Durham, 
ami Cumberland come together. 

DISTRIBUTION OF IRON. 

In the United States.— Iron is so very extensively distributed through- 
out the United States, that only a mere mention of the States in which it is 
most abundant can be given in this article. Rich deposits of this metal are 
found in almost, if not quite, every State in the Union ; but the States 
in which they were wrought to the greatest extent in 1S0O were? in the 
order of their rank in this respect, Pennsylvania, Ohio, New York, Mary- 
land, Kentucky, New Jersey, Tennessee, and Missouri. Pennsylvania excels 
all other States in the manufacture of iron, having yielded in 1860 five eighths 
of all that was made in the Union. The number of tons of iron made in 
the United States, according to the census of 1860, was 884,474. Owing 
to the cheapness of foreign iron, and the extensive importation of it, the 
iron mines of this country are not worked so largely as they otherwise 
would be. 

In Foreign Countries. — Great Britain stands pre-eminent for the abund- 
ance of its iron and the extent of its manufacture, the annual produce of its 
mines being estimated at about 3.000,000 tons. Of the other foreign 
countries noted for the production of iron, are France, Belgium, the Aus- 
trian Empire, the Russian Empire, Sweden, and Prussia. 

Note.— For the approximate amount of metals produced iu various countries about 
the year iS60, see the following table : 



PRODUCT OF MINES IN VARIOUS COUNTRIES NEAR 1860. 

Country. Coalj Ir0 ^ Copper, Lead, Zinc, Tin, Salt, Gold, Silver, 

America : tons- tons- '°ns. tons. tons. tons. tons. lbs. Troy. lbs. Troy. 

Canada — .... 27,000. ... 6,000. .. . — .... — .... — .... 160,000.... 200.... — .. 

New Brunswick 20,000.... 6,500.... — .... — .... — .... — .... 40,000.... 50.... — . 

Nova Scotia 265.000.... 22,000.... — .... — .... — .... — .... 26,000.... 1,000.... 50 

UnitedStates 16,000,000.... 885,000. .. .14,400. .. .18,000 .... 6,000. .. . — .... 320.000. .. .260,000. .. . 52.000. 

Mexico — .... 48,000. ... 3,000.... — .... — .... — .... 120,000. ... 15,500. .. .2,400,000. 



Mercurv, 
lbs. Troy. 



1,200,000 
300,000 



108 



APPENDIX II. 



_ Coal, 

Country. tong .' 

Central America — 

Cuba — 

Columbia 20,000. 

Brazil — 

Bolivia — 

Peru 50,000. 

Chile 100,000. 

Europe : 

Great Britain 72,000,000. 

France 5,500,000. 

Spain 1,000,000. 

Belgium 8,300,000. 

Prussia 7,600,000. 

Austria 1,820,000. 

Germany 500,000. 

Sweden and Norway ■ — 

Russian Empire 200,000. 

Italy — 

Other Countries : 

Southern Asia and E. India Islands . 1,000,000 . 

Australia 100,000. 

Africa — 



PRINCIPAL MOUNTAINS, AND THEIR ELEVATION. 

NORTH AMERICA. 

Bocky Mts., between 70° N. lat. and Lewis and Clark's Pass (47° SO' 
N. lat.), 3,000 to 10,000 feet ; from the latter to South Pass 
(42° N. lat.), 10,000 to 14,000; thence to El Paso (about 32° 
N. lat.), 15,000 to 7,000. Feet. 

Mt. Brown 15,690 

Mt. Hooker 15,700 

Fremont's Peak 13,570 

Long's Peak 12,500 

Pike's Peak 14,500 

Spanish Peaks 11,000 

Mountain Peaks in the southern part of the Plateau of Anahuac : 

Toluca 15,751 

Popocatapetl (V.,* highest peak in N. America) 17,884 

Istaccihuatl 15,705 

Perote 13,415 

Orizaba (V.) 17,373 

Peaks on the Plateau of Central America : 

Volcano of Agua 13,578 

Cartago 11,480 

Northwest Coast Range : 

Mt. Ilaeman (V.) 12,066 

Mt St. Elias 16,756 

Mt. Fairweather 14,708 

Cascade Range : 

Mt. St. Helens about 12,000 

Mt. Shasta 14,390 

Sierra Nevada probably from 10,000 to 12,000 

Note. — The heights, given below, of the principal peaks of the Appalachian 
Mountain System are according to the recent barometric measurements of Pro- 
fessor Guyot. 

White Mts. (average of eight highest peaks) 5,601 

Mt. Washington 6,288 

Mt. Adams 5,794 

Mt. Jefferson 5,714 

Green Mountains : 

Mansfield Mt (the Chin) 4,430 

Ellington Peak 4,221 

Adirondac Mts. (average of ten highest peaks) ? 4,975 

Mt. Marcy or Tehawus 5,379 

Catskill Mts. (average) ? 3,000 

Alleghany Mts. : average of Blue Ridge, in Pa , 1,100 feet ; in Md. 
and Va., near Harper's Ferry, 1,800 ; of highest peaks in central 
Va., 4,000 ; of the entire ridge in N. C, 3,200 ; in Ga , 1,800 ; 



Iron, 


Copper, 


Lead, 


Zinc, 


Tin, 


Salt, 


Gold, 


Silver, 


Mercury, 


tons. 


tons 


tons. 


tons. 


tons. 


tons. 


lbs. Troy. 


lbs. Troy. 


IbB. Troy. 


2 000.. 


— ' . . 


. — . . 


. — . 


. . — . 


.. 16,000.. 


. 1,200.. 


. 160,000. . . 


— 


— . 


. 8,000.. 


. . ■ — . . 


. — . 


. . — . 


— . . 


— . . 


— 


— 


32,000. . 


— . . 


. . — . . 


. — . 


. . — . 


. . 300,000. . 


. 15,000.. 


. 20,000... 


— 


38,000.. 


— . . 


. . — 


. — . . 


. . — . 


.. 100,000.. 


.. 8,000.. 


1,200... 


— 


16,000. . 


. . 1,800.. 


. . — . . 


. — . 


.. 200. 


— . . 


. 1,600.. 


. 128,000... 


— 


5,000.. 


. . 2,000.. 


. . — . . 


. . — . 


!■ 1,600. 


( 50,000.. 


. . 2,800.. 


. 340,000. . . 


. 200,000 


10,000. . 


..22,000.. 


. . — 


. . — . 


. . 4,600.. 


. 200,000... 


— 


,000,000.. 


..16,000.. 


..03,000.. 


. . 3,000. 


6.500. 


. .. 800,000.. 


200. . 


. 48,000.. 





800,000.. 


. . 5,600.. 


..45,000.. 


. . — . 


. . — 


. . 360,000. . 


— 


. 20,400. . 


— 


82,000. . 


800.. 


..34,000.. 


35. 


.. 16. 


.. 156,000 . 


40.. 


. 137.000. . . 


. 2,500,000 


365,000.. 


. . — . . 


.. 2,100.. 


..23,000. 


.. — . 


— 


— . . 


11,000.. 


— 


160.000.. 


.. 1,700.. 


. . 9,500.. 


..35,000. 


. . — . 


. .. 200,000.. 


— . . 


. 60,000. . 


— 


280,000.. 


.. 3,500.. 


.. 8,200.. 


.. 1,600. 


. .. 60. 


. .. 356,000.. 


. . 6 000.. 


. 95,000. . 


. 400,000 


140,000.. 


. 600.. 


..12,000.. 


40. 


.. 135. 


. . „ 300,000 , . 


100.. 


. . 120,000.. 


— 


188,000.. 


. 3,100.. 


. . 600.. 


. 100. 


. . — . 


.. 100,000.. 


50.. 


. 28,000... 


— - 


218,000.. 


. . 8,000.. 


. . 1,000.. 


. 4,000. 


.. — . 


. .. 500,000.. 


..120,000.. 


. 65,000. . 


— 


23,000. . 


. . 400.. 


.. 630.. 


. -■- . 


. . — . 


.. 200,000.. 


— . . 


— . . . 


■ — 


300,000. . 


.. 4,500.. 


.. 5,000.. 


— 


..6,000. 


..1,000,000.. 


. . 30,000.. 


. 200,000.. 





10,000.. 


. . 4,200.. 


. . 200. . 


. . 160. 


. . — . 


. .. 100 000.. 


..286,000.. 


. 22,000. . 


— 


100,000. . 


. . 1,600.. 








..1,000,000.. 


. . 10,000.. 







* Peaks marked thus (V.) are volcanoes. 



Feet 
Alleghanies Proper, near lat. 37£°, 2,650; near lat. 36°, for a 
distance of 150 miles, 5,000 ; at their terminus in Ala., 1,200. 

Peaks of Otter (the highest) 3,993 

White Top (southern border of Va.) 5,530 

Black Mts. (average of eight highest peaks) 6,610 

Black Dome, or Mitchell's High Peak, or Clingman's Peak 6,707 

Balsam Cone 6,67 1 

Black Brother or Sandoz Mt 6,619 

Cattail Peak 6,611 

Smoky or TJnaka Mts. (highest range of the Appalachian System) av- 
erage about 6,300 ? feet. 

Smoky Dome or Clingman's Mt 6,660 

Mt. Guyot 6,636 

Mt. Leconte (central peak) 6,612 

Mt. Buckley 6,599 

ISLANDS OP AMERICA. 

Sierra Maestra (Cuba, West Indies) : 

Pareo de Tarquino 7,900 

Le Gran Piedra 5,300 

Blue Mts. (Jamaica, West Indies) 6,739 

Cibao Mts. (Hayti, " ) 7,200 

Sierra de Languilla (Porto Rico, West Indies) 3,678 

Mt. Misery (V.) (St. Christopher, " ) 3,712 

Souffriere (V.) (Guadaloupe, " ) 5,500 

Solfatara (V.) (Dominica, " ) 6,075 

Mt. Pellee (Martinique, " ) 4,430 

Volcano (St. Lucie, " ) 4,000 

Mt. Garoa (St. Vincent, " ) 5,007 

Sarmiento (East Tierra del Fuego) 6,900 

SOUTH AMERICA. 

Silla de Caracas (Sierra Castanera, Venezuela) 8,632 

Horqueta (Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta, New Granada) 19,184 

Andes Mts., or Cordillera de los Andes : between 5° N. lat. and 2° S. 
lat., average from 11,000 to 12,000 feet; between 15° and 19° 
S. lat., about 15,000 ; southward of 42° S. lat., about 3,000. 

Tolima (V.) (New Granada) 18,320 

Purace (V.) " 17,008 

Cumbal(V) " 16,824 

Cyambe (Ecuador) 19,534 

Antisana " 19,370 

Pinchincha (V.) (Ecuador) 15,930 

Cotopaxi (V.) " 18,875 

Tunguragua (V.) " 15,960 

Chimborazo " 21,424 

Sangay (V.) " 16,827 

La Viuda (Peru) 15,908 



PRINCIPAL MOUNTAINS, AND THEIR ELEVATION. 



109 



Feet 

Vilcanota (Peru) , 17,525 

Chuquibamba (Peru) 21,000 

Arequipa (V.) 18,373 

Nevada de Sorata (Bolivia) 21,250 

Illimani " 21,181 

Sahama (V.) (Bolivia aud Peru) 22,3-50 

Gualatieri (V.) " " " 21,960 

Potosi (Bolivia) 16,150 

Portezuela Come Caballo (Chile and Argentine Republic) 14,521 

Cordel de la Laguna " " " " 15,575 

■Aconcagua " " " " 22,301 

Tupungato " " " " 22,450 

Maypu " " " " ....... 17,664 

Villa Uica(V.) " " " " 16,000 

Osomo (V.) (Chile and Patagonia) 7,530 

Minchinmadom (V.) (Chile and Patagonia) 8,000 

Yanteles (V.) (Patagonia) 8,030 

Mt. Stokes " . . . . ! 6,400 

Parime Mts. (Venezuela, Guiana, and Brazil), average from 4,000 to 
5,000 feet. 

Duida (Venezuela) 8,467 

Maravaca " 10,500 

Eoraima (Venezuela and B. Guiana) 7,450 

Mts. of Brazil : 

Itambe (Serra Espinhaco) 5,755 

Itacolumi (Serra Mantigueira) 5,750 

Morro dos Canados (Serra dos Orgaos) 4,476 

EUROPE. 

Scandinavian Mts. (Norway and Sweden) : 

Sulitelma 6,178 

Snee-haeten 8, 120 

Skagstol-tind 8,101 

Hardanger-field 5,748 

Vosges Mts. (France), average from 2,000 to 3,000 feet. 

Cevennes Mts. (France), average from 2,000 to 3.000 feet. 

Mt. d'Or, " highest peak 6,190 

Pyrenees Mts. (France and Spain), average from 7,000 to 9,000 feet. 

Pic Nethou or Maladetta 11, 1G8 

Mt. Perdu. . , 10,994 

Cantabrian Mts. (Spain), average from 4,000 to 6,000 feet. 

Pena de Panaranda 10.998 

Iberian Mts. : 

Sierra de Oca , 5,450 

Sierra Molina 4,500 

Castilian Mts. (Spain and Portugal), average from 4,000 to 5,000 feet. 

Sierra de Gredos (Spain) 10,551 

Serra d'Estrella ( Portugal) 7,524 

Mts. of Toledo (Spain), average from 3,000 to 4,000 feet. 

Sierra de Guadaloupe 5,115 

Sierra Morena (Spain) 

Sierra Nevada (Spain), average from 6,000 to 9,000 feet. 

Mulhacen 11,658 

Veleta 11,382 

Harz Mts. (Hanover) : 

Brocken 3,658 

Schwarz Wald (Baden), average from 2,000 to 3,000 feet. 

Jura Mts. (France and Switzerland), average from 3,000 to 4,000 feet. 

Reculet 5,959 

The Alps (France, Italy, Switzerland, and Austria), western part, av- 
erage from 8,000 to 9,000 feet. 

Monte Viso 12,582 

Mont, Olan 13,120 

Mont Cenis 11,457 

Mont Blanc 15,760 

Great St. Bernard 11,003 

Monte Rosa 15,203 

Jungfrau , 13,710 

Finster-aar-Horn 14,106 



Teet 

Mont St. Gothard 10,595 

Ortler Spitz 12,818 

Gross Glockner 12,776 

Apennines (Italy), average from 3,000 to 5,000 feet. 

Monte Cimone , 6,975 

Monte Sybilla 7,212 

Monte Corno or Gran Sasso 10,154 

Monte Vellino 7,851 

Monte Araaro 9,113 

Vesuvius (V.) : . . . 3,947 

Erz Gebirge (Saxony and Bohemia), average from 2,000 to 3,000 feet. 

Riesen Gebirge (Silesia and Bohemia), average from 3,000 to 4,000 ft. 

Bohmer Wald (Bohemia and Bavaria), average from 3.000 to 4,000 ft. 

Carpathian Mts. (northern and eastern portions), average from 5,000 
to 6,000 feet. 

Lomnitz Peak (group of Mt. Tatra) 8,779 

Dinaric Alps (Turkey), average from 4,000 to 5,000 feet. 

Dinari 6,667 

Mt. Kom 9,575 

Balkan Mts. (Turkey), average from 2,000 to 3,000 feet. 

Schar 8,805 

Orbelus 9,000 

Mt. Pindus Chain (Turkey and Greece), average 5,000 to 6,000 feet. 

Olympus (modern name, Lacha) 9,754 

Guiona 8,239 

Parnassus (modern name, Liakhura) 8,068 

Caucasus Mts. (Caucasia and Georgia), average 8,000 to 10,000 feet. 

Elburz. : 18,493 

Kabek 16,592 

Ural Mts. (between Europe a- Asia), average from 2,000 to 2,500 ft. 

Obdorsk 5,118 

Konjakofski 5,307 

Tagnai 3,592 

Iremel 5,075 

Yaman 5,400 

ISLANDS OF EUROPE, ETC. 

Hekla (V.) (Iceland) 5,095 

Oraefa Jokull " 6,409 

Mts. of Kerry (Ireland) : 

Brandon 3,120 

Carran Tual (highest of McGillacuddy's Reeks) 3,404 

Wicklow Mts. (Ireland) : 

Lugnaquilla 3,039 

Northern Highlands (Scotland) : 

Ben Wyvis 3,720 

Ben Atow 4,000 

Grampian Hills (Scotland) : 

Cairn Gorm 4,695 

Ben McDkui 4,305 

Ben Nevis 4,3C8 

The Eowthers (Scotland) 3,150 

Cheviot Hills (between England and Scotland) 2,658 

Cross Fell (Pennine Chain, England) 2,901 

Scaw Fell (Cumbrian Mts., " ) 3,166 

Snowdon (Wales) '. . . 3,571 

Plynlimmon " 2,463 

Gran Pico (Azores or Western Is.) , 7,911 

Monte Rotondo (Corsica) 9,069 

Genargentu (Sardinia) 5,276 

Mt. Etna (V.) (Sicily) 10,874 

Mt. Ida (modern name, Psilorati, I. of Candia) 7,674 

ASIA. 

Kamtchatka Mts., average f-ora 10,000 to 15,000 feet. 

Shiveluteh (V.) 10,591 

Kliuchevsk (V.) 16,512 

Altai Mts. (Siberia, Mongolia, and Hi), average from 5,000 to 7,000ft. 

Bielucha 11,063 



110 



APPENDIX II. 



Thian Shan (northern part of Chinese Empire), average from 6,000 
to 8,000 feet. 

Talo 8,500 

Petsha above 10,000 

Kuen Lun (Tibet, Hi, and China proper), average from 16,000 to 
18,000 feet. 

Himalaya Mts. (Ladak, Tibet, and Hindoostan), average from 15,000 
to 18,000 feet. 

Chumalari 23,929 

Kunchinginga 28, 176 

Everest (highest known peak on the globe) 29,002 

Gossainthan 24,740 

Dhawalagiri 28,080 

Jawahir 25,670 

Bolor Mts. (Hi and Toorkistan), highest peaks average from 15,000 
to 20,000 feet. 

Hindoo Koosh Mts. (Toorkistan and Afghanistan) : 

Hindoo Koosh Peak 20,230 

Sufaid Koh 16,000 

Suleiman Mts. (Afghanistan and Hindoostan) : 

Suleiman Peak 12, 150 

Elbrooz Mts. (Persia) : 

Demavend, height lately ascertained 21,500 

Zacros Mts. (Persia and Turkey), average from 6,000 to 9,000 feet. 

Sheikiwa 10,423 

Taurus Mts. (Turkey), average from 4,000 to 5,000 feet. 

Ararat 17,323 

Arga3us (modern name, Arjish-dagh) 12,869 

Olympus ( " " Chehish-dagh) 9,000 

Mt. Lebanon Chain (north of Palestine), average from 6,000 to 
7,000 feet. 
Hermon (modern name, Jebel-esh-Sheikh) 10,000 

Mts. of Sinai (Arabia', highest peak 9,300 

Aravulei Mts. (Hindoostan) about 3,600 

Vindhya Mts. " average from 2,500 to 3,000 feet. 

Gauts Mts. " eastern chain, greatest height 3,000 feet ; 
western chain, average from 3,000 to 4,500. 
Taddiamdamata 5,690 

ISLANDS OF ASIA. 

Kini Balu (Borneo) 13,698 

Slamat (V. ) (Java) 11,300 

Indrapura (V.) (Sumatra) 12,500 

Ophir (modern name, Pacaman, in Sumatra) 9,603 

Pedrotallagalla (Ceylon) „ , „ 8,326 

AFRICA. 

Atlas Mts. (Barbary), average from 3,000 to 4,000 feet. 

Miltsin 11,400 

Hentet 1 15,000 

Egyptian and Nubian Mts., average from 3,000 to 4,000 feet. 

Mt. Agrib 5,600 

Abyssinian Mts. : 

Abba Yaret 15,200 

Mts. of the Moon (Zanguebar) : 

Mt. Kenia (V.), supposed , 20,000 

Kilimandjaro , 20,000 

Nieuveldt Mts. (South Africa) : 

Spitz Hop 10,240 

Table Mt , 3,582 

Cameroon Mts. (Guinea , highest peak 13,760 

Mt. Atlantika - from 9,000 to 10,000 

Mts. of Kong (Soudan and Guineal, average from 3,000 to 4,000 feet. 

Mt. Loma 5,000 

Mts. of Central Africa : 

Mt. Dogem , 4,500 

Mt. Baghzen from 3,000 to 3,500 

ISLANDS OF AFEICA. 

Peak of Teneriffe (V.), (Canary Is. ) 12,182 

Fogo (Cape Verde Is,) ..,.,,..,...., 9,157 



Mt. 
Mt. 



Feet. 

Santiago (Cape Verde Is.) 7,400 

Clarence Peak (Fernando Po) 10,655 

Ankaratra Mts. (Madagascar), average from 8,000 to 10,000 feet. 

Piton de Neiges (Bourbon) 10,355 



AUSTRALASIA, POLYNESIA, ETC. 
Warragong Mts. or Australian Alps (New South Wales and Victoria), 

average 2,500 feet. 

Mt. Wellington 

Omeo 

Mt. William '. 

Bryan (South Australia) 

Brown " 

Gawler Range ' ' average 

Darling Bange (West Australia \ average 

Toolbrunup 

Mts. of Tasmania, principal chain, average 

Mt. Humboldt 

Mts. of New Ulster (New Zealand) : 

Mt. Edgecombe (V.) about 

Tongariro (V.) 

Ruapaho 

Egmont (V.) 

Mts. of New Munster (New Zealand) : 

Kaikora 

Mt. Arthur 

Rowley Peak 

Opureone (Tahiti, Society Is.) 

Mauna Kea (V.) (Hawaii, Sandwich Is.) 

Mauna Loa " " " 

Mt Erebus '■' (South Victoria Land) 



6,510 
3,700 
4,000 
4,500 
3,000 
2,000 
2,500 
5,000 
3,750 
5,520 

10,000 
6,200 
9,000 
8,839 

9,900 

8,000 

5,000 

8,000 

13,587 

13,175 

12,400 



PRINCIPAL RIVERS OF THE WORLD, 

SHOWING THEIR SOURCES— THE COUNTRIES THROUGH WHICH TnET FLOW 
— THE SEAS INTO WHICH THEY FALL — THEIR APPROXIMATE LENGTH 
AND NAVIGABLE DISTANCE IN ENGLISH MILES. 

After the name of each river follow — 1st (in parenthesis), that of the 
district in which it rises ; 2d, in Italics, the countries through which it 
flows ; 3d, the sea or ocean into which it falls ; and, lastly, its length, 
inclusive of the principal windings of its stream, and its navigable dis- 
tance, when it can be ascertained. 

NORTH AMERICA. Total Nav'o 

I.,'ll?tll. DlBt. 

Mackenzie, including Peace R. (Rocky Mts.), — British Possessions : Arctic 
Ocean 2,000 

Nelson, including Saskatchewan R. (Rocky Mts.),— British Possessions : Hud- 
son Bay 1,400 

St. Lawrence, with great lakes (Plateau of Minnesota), — United- States, Can- 
ada : Gulf of St. Lawrence 2,050 

Navigable for ships 5S0, and by artificial menus for smaller vessels to wltliln lr.0, miles 

or Us source 1,000 

Ottawa (table-land of Canada), — Canada: St. Lawrence River 450 100 

St. Maurice " " " " 800 100 

Saguenat " " " " 230 70 

Sorelle, or St. John, with Lake Champlain " 172 172 

St. Francis (Lake St. Francis) — Canada: " 130 

Ciiaudiere (Lake Megantic), " " 125 4 

St. John (divide between the TJ. States and Canada),— United States, Canada, 

and ITeio Brunswick : Bay of Fundy . 320 80 

Penobscot " " —Maine: Ailanlie Ocean 275 50 

Kennebec " " " " 200 42 

Androscoggin " " " " 140 18 

Connecticut " " — Vermont, AT. Hampshire, Mas- 
sachusetts, Connecticut : Long Island Sound 410 50 

Mereimao (White Mts ), — IF. Hampshire, Mass. : Atlantic Ocean 170 5 

Housatonic (Taghkanio"Mts), — Mass., Conn. : Long Island Sound 130 14 

Hudson (Adirondac Mts.), — JV7. York : Atlantic Ocean 310 160 

Mohawk " " Hudson River 135 

Genesee (Alleghany Mts.) " Lake Ontario 145 6 

Delaware (Catskill Mts.),— A''. York, A r . Jersey, Penn. : Delaware Bay 809 75 

Susquehanna (Alleghany Ms.),-J. York, Penn., Md. : Chesapeake Bay 450 

Potomao i: —Md., Va.: " ... 880 115 



PRINCIPAL. RIVERS OF THE WORLD. 



Ill 



Total Nnv'e 
Length. Diat. 

James (Alleghany Mts.), — Virginia : Chesapeake Bay 375 110 

Roanoke " — Virginia, N. Carolina: Albemarle Sound 275 75 

Neuse — North Carolina : Pamlico Sound 250 45 

Cape Fear " —North Carolina : Atlantic Ocean 250 100 

Great Pedes " — N. and S. Carolina ; " S75 14 

Santee " " " 360 150 

Savannah " — Georgia^ South Carolina : Atlantic Ocean 830 135 

Altamaha " —Georgia : Atlantic Ocean 320 190 

St. Johns's (Everglades),— Florida : " 230 175 

Appalachicola, with Chattahoochee Rivtr (Alleghany Mts.)> — Georgia, Ala- 
bama, Florida ; Gulf of Mexico 470 270 

Flint (Alleghany Nts.)< — Georgia ; Appalachicola River 275 80 

Mobcle, with Alabama and Coosa Rivers (Alleghany Mis.))— Georgia, Ala- 
bama: Gulf of Mexico 1,090 86-7 

Tombigbee (Alleghany Mts.), —Mississippi, Alabama : Gulf of Mexico. 475 860 

Black Warstor " — Alabama : Tombigbee River. 300 133 

Pearl (table-land, Miss.), — Mississippi : Gulf of Mexico 330 

Mississippi (Lake Itasca),— Min., Wis., Iowa, HI., Mo., Ky., Tenn., Ark., 

3Iiss., la. : Gulf of Mexico 2,500 2,200 

Red (Llano Estacado),— Tennessee, Arkansas, La. : Mississippi River 1,200 375 

"Washita (PoUau Hills), — Arkansas, Louisiana : Red River 460 250 

Yazoo (table-laud, Miss.), — Mississippi : Mississippi River 850 65 

Arkansas (Rorky Mts.),— Kansas, Indian Ter., Ark. : Mississippi River 2,000 645 

"White (Ozark Ridge),- Missouri, Arkansas: Arkansas River 550 140 

St. Francis " " " Mississippi River 825 100 

Ohio, with Alleghany River (Alleghany Mts.), — Pennsylvania, New York, 

Ohio, Virginia, Kentucky, Indiana, Illinois: Mississippi River 1,300 948 

Monongahela (Alleghany Mts.),— Virginia, Pennsylvania : Ohio River 300 140 

Muskingum (table-land, Ohio), — Ohio : " 250 100 

Great Kanawha (Alleghany Mts.),— Virginia : " 400 66 

Scioto (table-land, Ohio),— Ohio : " 200 130 

Licking (Cumberland Mts.),— Kentucky: " 180 70 

Miami (table-land, Ohio),— Ohio : " 100 75 

Kentucky (Cumberland Mts.), — Kentucky: - " 300 60 

Green " " " 800 175 

"Wabash (table-land, Ohio), — Indiana, Illinois : " 500 800 

Cumberland (Cumberland Mts.), — Tennessee, Kentucky : " 550 120 

Tennessee, with Holston River (Alleghany Mts.), — Virginia, Tennessee, 

Alabama, Mississippi, Kentucky : Ohio River 1,200 276 

Kaskaski a (Grand Prairie), — Illinois : Mississippi River 800 T 

Missouri (Rocky Mts.),— Nebr., Min., la., Kan., Mo. : Mississippi River 3,100 1,SC6 

From the mouth of the Missouri to the Gulf of Mexico the distance U 1,350 miles— making 
the total len-th of the MiBsnuri 4.-150 miles. 

Yellow Stone (Rocky Mts.),— Nebraska : Missouri River 750 250 

Platte " " " 1,200 9G 

Kansas (Great Plain),— Kansas : " 600 150 

Osage " —Kmsas, Missouri : " 450 165 

Illinois, with Kankakee River (Indiana), — Ind., III. : Mississippi River 435 230 

Des Moines (Coteau des Prairies),— Minnesota, Iowa. : " 400 200 

Iowa " —Iowa : " 300 70 

Rock (Wisconsin),— Wisconsin, Illinois : Mississippi River 275 170 

"Wisconsin (Ontonagon Ridge),— Wisconsin : " 400 120 

Chippewa " " " . - . : 260 70 

St. Croix " — Wis. , Min. : " 225 30 

St. Peters (Coteau des Prairies),— Min. : " 300 100 

Sabine (Red River divide),— Texas : Gulf of Mexico 460 

Trinity " " " 530 60 

Brazos " " " 750 250 

Colorado (Llano Estacado), " " 690 220 

Nueces (Guadelupe Mts.), — Texas : Gulf of Mexico 350 100 

Rio Grande (Rocky Mts.), — N. Mexico, Texas, Mexieo : Gulf of Mexico 2,000 700 

Coatzacoalcos (Cordilleras),— Mexico : " .... 120 20 

TJsumasinta " — Guatemala, Mexico : " 250 120 

Humuta, including Ulua (Cordilleras of C. Amer.), — Honduras : Caribbean S. 250 
Choluteca, " " G. ofFonseca. 150 

San Juan (Cordilleras of C. Amer.),— L. Nicaragua, Nicaragua : Carib. S... 220 220 

Mexcala, with the Zacatula (Cordilleras),— Mexico : Pacific Ocean 600 

Rio Grande de Santiago (Lake Lerma),— Mex., Quera., 3fic7w., Guan., 

Guadalaxara : Pacific Ocean 400 

Colorado (Rocky Mts.),— Oregon, Utah, N. Mex., California, Mexico: Gulf 

of California 1,350 250 

Gila (Sierra Madre), — Neio Mexico : Colorado River 650 

San Joaquin (Sierra Nevada),— California : Sacramento River 850 50 

Sacramento " " San Francisco Bay 450 150 

Columbia (Rocky Mts.), — British Possessions, Washington, Oregon: Pacific 

Ocean 1,300 135 

Lewis' Fork (Rocky Mts \— Oregon, Washington : Columbia River 750 

Clark's Fork " — Washington : " coo 

Willamette (Cascade Mts.),— Oregon : " 225 15 

Frazer (Lake Stuart), — British Possessions : Gulf of Georgia 500 

Kwickpak (Rocky Mts.), " Buss. Possessions : BehringSea. 1,000 

SOUTH AMERICA. 

Magdalena (Andes), — New Granada: Caribbean Sea 860 400 



T<iUl 


Nnv'o 


Leugth. 


Dist. 


1,200 


800 


450 


60 


. 180 




250 


1G5 


375 


150 


300 


150 


3,900 


3,662 


. 1,400 


SOO 


1,000 


200 



Orinoco (Parime Mountains),— Venezuela : Atlantic Ocean 1,200 

Essequibo (Sierra \CAr&y), — British Guiana: " 

Demeeara " — Guiana: Atlantic Ocean 180 

Bebbice " " " 

CoEENTYN " " " 

Surinam " " " 

Amazon, or Maranon (Andes), — Ecuador, Brazil : Atlantic Ocean 

Negro (Plateau of New Granada),— N. Granada, Brazil : Amazon River. 
Ucayali (Andes of Peru),— Peru : « 

Madeiea (Andes of Bolivia), — Bolivia, Brazil : " 2,000 1,000 

Tocantins, with Peru (Serra dos Vertentes),— Brazil : Atlantic Ocean 1,400 500 

Paenahiba (Serra Borborema), " " 650 

San Francisco (Mountains of Brazil), " " 1,500 

Parana, with Eio de la Plata (Serra dos Yertentes), — Brazil, Paraguay, Ar- 
gentine Republic : Atlantic Ocean . 2,350 1,250 

Paeagitat (Geral Mts.),— Brazil, Argentine Republic : Parana Kiver 1,500 1,000 

Pilcomayo (Andes of Bolivia), — Bolivia, Argentine Repub.: Paraguay R. 900 
Vekmejo (Plateau of Despoblado, " " " " 75) 
Salaoo " " " Parana E.... 1,000 600 
Ueuguay (Serra do Mar), — Brazil, Uruguay : Eio de la Plata ' 600 



EUEOPE. 

Volga (Plateau of Valdai),— Russia : Caspian Sea 2,200 

Don (Great European Plain), " Sea of Azof 1,000 

Dnieper " " Black Sea 1,200 

Dniester (Carpathian Mts.).— Galicia, Russia : Black Sea . . 500 

Danube (Schwarz Wald),— Germany, Hungary, Turkey : Black Sea 1,630 

Po ( Alps),— Italy : Adriatic Sea 450 

Tiber (Apennines),— Italy : Mediterranean Sea 210 

Rhone (Alps), — Switzerland, France : Mediterranean Sea 490 

Euro (Cantabrian Mts.), — Spain: " 420 

Guadalquiver (table-land of Spain), — Spain : Atlantic Ocean 290 

Guadiana " —Spain, Portugal : Atlantic Ocean 450 

Tagus " " " .... 510 

Doijro " " " 460 

Garonne (Pyrenees), — France : Bay of Biscay 350 

Loire (Cevennes), " " 570 

Seine (Plateau of Langres), — France : English Channel 430 

ScnELDT (Plain of North France), — France, Belgium : North Sea 250 

Rhine (Alps), — Switzerland, Germany, etc. : " 7G0 

Weser (Harz Mts.), — Germany : " 380 

Elbe (Bohmer Wald Mts.1, " " G90 

Oder (Carpathian Mts.),. " Baltic Sea 550 

Vistula (Carpathian Mts.), — Poland, Prussia : Baltic Sea 628 

Niemen (Great European Plain*, — Russia, Prussia : Baltic Sea 400 

Duna (Platea of Valdai),— liussia : Gulf of Eiga 550 

Neva (from Lake Ladoga), " Gulf of Finland 45 

Gota (from Lake Wener), — Sweden : Oattegat 58 

Glommon (Scandinavian Mts.), — Norway : Skager-rack 400 

Dwina (Great European Plain), — Russia : "White Sea 760 

Petchoea (Ural Mts.), " Arctic Ocean 900 

Spey (Grampian Mts.),— Scotland : North Sea 96 

120 

150 

96 

70 



Tay " " 

Forth (Grampian Mts.), " 
Tweed (Lowlher Hills), " 
Tyne (Pennine Chain), — England : 
Ouse (Pennine Chain). 



LTumbee 



ISO 
215 



ii. ir n* \ [England: North Sea 

Trent (Staffordsh. Moorl'ds) f " 

Thames (Cotswold Hills), " " 

Severn (Welsh Mts.), — Wales, England : Bristol Channel 240 

Dee " " Irish Sea 75 

Mersey (Pennine Chain), — England : Irish Sea 170 

Eden " " Solway Firth 80 

Clyde (Lowther Hills),— Scotland : Firth of Clyde 98 

Lifpey (Mts. of "Wicklow), — Ireland : Irish Sea 75 

Bakeow (Slieve Bloom Mts ), " Waterford Harbor 105 

Suir " " " 100 

Shannon (Mts. of Cavan), " Atlantic Ocean 224 

Boyne (Central Plain),— Ireland : Irish Sea 80 



Obi (Altai Mts.), — Siberia 

Tenesei " " 

Lena " " " 

Amooe (Mongolia), — Mongolia, Manclworia 



ASIA. 

Arctic Ocean 2,530 

" 2,900 

" 2,400 

Gulf of Tartary 2,300 



HoANG-no (Kuenlun Mts.),— China : Yellow Sea 2,600 

Yang-tse-kiang " " " 3,200 

Choo-kiang (Nan-ling Mts.), — China : China Sea 1,100 

May-kiang (Tibet),— Tibet, China, Cambodia : China Sea 1,800 

Meinam (Mts. of Yunnan),— China; Laos, Siam : Gulf of Siam 900 

Saluen (Plateau of Tibet),— Tibet, China, etc.: Gulf of Martaban 1,700 

Ikawady " — Birmah; Bay of Bengal 1,100 

Bramahpootra " — Assam, Ilindoostan : Bay of Bengal 1,500 

Ganges (Himalaya Mts.),— India : Bay of Bengal 1,460 



1,800 

700 

1,100 

48 

1,500 

280 

47 

200 

220 

150 

35 

90 

110 

260 

340 

350- 

140 

550 

25 

430 

310 



35 
40 
10 
12 



170 
150 
20 
40 
15 
35 

60 

86 

200 

19 



900 
540 
800 

500 
700 
870 
500 



600 
650 
900 



112 



APPENDIX II. 



Tutsi Niiv'e 
Length. Dal. 

Godaveey (The Ghauts),— Hindoostan : Indian Ocean 70 > 60 

Kistnah " " " 650 

Cauveey . " •' " 470 

Indus (Plateau of Tibet),— India : Arabian Sea 1,700 942 

Euphrates (Plateau of Armenia),— Turkey in Asia: Persian Gulf 1,700 1,000 

Tigeis " " Euphrates River 1,150 320 

Kue " — Georgia : Caspian 3ea 520 

Jordan (Mts. of Lebanon),— Palestine : Dead Sea 287 

Ural, or laik (Ural Mts.), — between Europe and Asia : Caspian Sea 1,150 

Amoo, or Jibon (Plateau of Pamir),— Toorkistan : Sea of Aral 1,800 

AFRICA. 

Nile (Plateau Central Africa),— Donga, Nubia, Egypt : Mediterranean Sea . . 3,600 

Senegal (Mts. of Western Soudan),— Senegambia : Atlantic Ocean 900 400 

Gambia " " " 650 800 

Qdoera, or Niger (Mis. of Kong),— Soudan : Gulf of Guinea 2,500 700 

Zaiee, or Congo (Plateau Central Africa), — Congo : Atlantic Ocean 1,200 

Coanza " — Angola : " 500 

Gariep, or Orantse (Nieuveldt. Mts.), — S. Africa : " 1,050 

Zambeze (interior of Africa), — East Africa : Indian Ocean 1,600 

OCEANICA. 

Mderay (Warragong Mountains), — Australia : Indian Ocean 1,280 375 

Swan River (Darling Range), " " 250 10 

Derwent (Lake St. Clair),— Tasmania : Pacific Ocean 140 26 

Waikato,— New Zealand : Pacific Ocean. 




TABLE* OF MEAN TEMPERATURE OF EACH SEASON AND 
OF. THE WHOLE YEAR. 



Melville Island.. 

Port Bowen 

Boothia Felix . 
Winter Island... 
Fort Simpson .. 

Inkutsk 

Fort Franklin. - . 

Nain 

Torneo 

Irkutsk 

Kazan 

Umea 

St. Petersburg .. 

Moscow 

Quebec , 

Christiana. ... 

Stockholm 

Halifax 

Montreal 

Toronto 

Warsaw. . 



74 47 
73 14 
69 59 
6611 
6211 

62 1 
6512 
5710 
66 24 
52 17 
55 48 

63 50 
59 56 
55 45 
46 48 
59 55 
59 21 

44 89 

45 31 
43 40 
52 18 



110 4S 

88 56 

92 1 

83 11 

121 32 

—129 44 

128 13 

61 50 

—23 47 

—104 17 

-A<> 7 

—2016 

—SO IS 

-37 38 

71 17 

—10 45 

—18 4 

63 38 

73 85 

79 22 

■21 1 



F.lev.illo 

.linveliM 

of KI'H. 



Feet. 



250 
230 



1355 
150 



74 
128 



840 
851 



-2845 

-25.09 

-21.71 

-20.47 

-11.04 

-30.37 

-16.06 

8.66 

6.41 

0.90 

6.34 

13.47 

IS. 66 

15.20 

14.15 

23.18 

26.04 

21.00 

17.79 

25.43 

24.91 



—3.19 
—5.77 
—5.21 
6.85 
26.10 
15.61 
14.05 
24.57 
27.88 
35.29 
36.20 
33.10 
37.06 
40.98 
39.05 
40.03 
88.21 
31.67 
45.76 
42.34 
43.05 



87.08 
84.40 
8S.04 
31.80 
59.16 
61.72 
50.23 
47.91 
57.89 
01.50 
62 39 
57.42 
01.68 
63.97 
68.08 
59 88 
60.43 
61.00 
71.40 
64.63 
63.21 



Autumn. Yenr. 



-0.48 
10.58 
9.69 
17.58 
26.24 
12.76 
21.12 
85.16 
32.10 
82.77 
80.91 
87.45 
41.02 
89.94 
46.10 
42.62 
44.41 
46.67 
48.08 
46.81 
45.41 



1.24 
8.53 
8.70 
8.82 
25.12 
18.43 
17.18 
27.82 
81.06 
82.62 
85.45 
35.37 
89.61 
40.02 
41.85 
41.45 
42.27 
40.08 
45.70 
44.81 
44.15 



* In the above Table, a minus sign ( — ) placed before a degree of lat. indicates that the 
Jat. is south, and placed before a degree of long, denotes that it is east long. 



COUNTRIES. 


Lnt. N. 


Long. W. 


Elevattou 

above lev 
ot pen. 


Winter. 


Spring. 


Summer 


Autumn. 


Year. 




O / 

4216 
5120 
65 41 

51 07 

64 20 

65 58 
50 40 
58 05 

52 80 
42 21 
68 21 
60 22 
4612 
4818 
50 51 
5180 

46 59 
48 50 
6127 

—86 51 

-42 53 

4511 

39 67 

40 43 
89 54 
88 57 

47 13 
45 88 
44 50 
40 25 
4818 
4154 

-84 54 
—014 

40 52 
44 24 
88 42 

—15 55 
19 25 
36 58 
8S11 

—3411 
31 18 
4128 
82 38 

41 
36 ?2 
8147 
88 
85 54 

29 58 
82 20 

30 07 
36 48 
28 8 
30 2 
33 21 

22 54 

18 20 

23 9 

19 12 

12 45 
2518 
2150 
22 85 
18 56 

117 

—6 9 

8 84 

13 4 


O / 

74 58 
—12 22 
—12 85 
—17 02 
—18 41 

s'll 

—10 80 

—8 49 

—18 24 

71 4 

611 

4 7 
—610 

—16 23 

-4 22 

■ 5 

6 55 

—2 2" 

2 86 
—174 54 
—147 28 

—7 41 

75 1 
74 1 

—116 26 

76 55 
188 

—13 46 
85 

3 42 
—5 22 

—12 25 

56 18 

78 45 

—14 15 

—8 54 

9 9 

5 48 
99 6 
7616 

—15 81 

18 26 

—29 48 

—2 12 

16 56 

—29 

618 

85 14 

—21 

—14 84 

90 7 

64 50 

5 21 

10 11 

—113 16 

—8115 

—44 22 

48 16 

—50 44 

82 28 

96 9 

—76 51 

—'2 56 

—96 5 

—88 20 

—72 54 

—103 50 

—106 58 

—8122 

—8019 


Feet. 
1384 

878 

220 

ioo 

1258 
450 
262 

1350 
114 

857 

lis 

1989 
140 
160 

8970 

1764 
6990 

204 

80 

2500 

2412 
800 

'so 


o 
26.64 
81.79 
81.31 
29.19 
80.01 
37.08 
88.45 
82.61 
88.10 
81.45 
28.29 
89.83 
44.83 
34.04 
81.95 
88.01 
89.50 
85.68 
37.85 
40.88 
66.92 
68.06 
83.46 
80.07 
80.12 
28.28 
87.76 
40.63 
89.44 
48.10 
48.16 
45.22 
46.78 
77.88 
77.60 
47 65 
47.38- 
52.52 
68.87 
53.64 
46.95 
51.97 
66.95 
64.43 
50.18 
68.50 
40.94 
52.90 
49.61 
58.06 
58.06 
55.80 
58.76 
57.93 
55.76 
64.83 
68.52 
49.62 
79.15 
79.78 
72.9S 
70.<8 
71.88 
66.17 
68. S2 
72.25 
77.44 
79.24 
78.67 
77.88 
77.06 


o 
48 4S 
45.72 
43.54 
45.73 
43.57 
44.64 
45.02 
46.58 
47.11 
47.41 
46.09 
47.16 
49.68 
52.21 
51.60 
49.04 
49.00 
50.08 
50.62 
50.33 
59.88 
51.55 
58.73 
49.80 
52.06 
55.51 
50.19 
54.65 
68.69 
56.08 
55.64 
55.91 
58.25 
68.00 
60.17 
57.56 
58.81 
59.66 
64.96 
68 42 
62.91 
61.48 
62.00 
69.81 
60.37 
64 46 
53.00 
59.58 
60.50 
60 37 
60.37 
72.08 
63.74 
66.25 
64.94 
69.88 
78.58 
75.04 
74.70 
89.07 
76.22 
77.00 
82.07 
87.78 
81.92 
87.60 
83.25 
81.05 
79.50 
79.93 
88.09 




67.88 
60.25 
62.70 
68.61 
61.92 
57 37 
57.17 
63.40 
63.30 
64.56 
69.04 
59.57 
60 87 
70.36 
69.40 
64.04 
62.98 
66.50 
64.58 
64.33 
50.75 
42.14 
71.51 
71.36 
70.93 
75.17 
76.74 
68. 6S 
71.89 
71.08 
76.40 
72.98 
74.24 
57.33 
59.71 
74.38 
75.08 
70.94 
58.41 
65.23 
78.80 
•77.14 
54.39 
76.89 
77.00 
71 .00 
71.30 
70.48 
73. 8S 
76.89 
67.00 
82.04 
75.20 
77.82 
83.00 
S2.00 
85.10 
98.18 
08.60 
52.93 
81.85 
81.92 
74.97 
87.24 
S3.59 
86.72 
82.84 
81.61 
78.16 
88.00 
86.18 



48.03 
47.86 
4S.70 
4S.42 
47.06 
47.64 
47.89 
4S.90 
4S.99 
49.23 
50.46 
49.68 
52 91 
54.25 
51.16 
51.00 
51.S3 
52 07 
52.20 
51.67 
56.88 
52.75 
68.80 
51.87 
53.20 
'64.22 
56.87 
65.63 
66.69 
67.88 
57.44 
59.21 
62.75 
64.77 
60.61 
61.46 
62.97 
62.48 
58.88 
60.18 
66.69 
69 21 
59.78 
69.04 
64.51 
70.SS 
60.56 
65.85 
06.53 
69.04 
69.04 
69.28 
71.90 
67.76 
71.86 
72.88 
71.48 
77.16 
72.56 
89.51 
78.12 
78.26 
74.67 
79.87 
79.16 
83.00 
81.54 
80.82 
77.00 
81.85 
81.45 


O 

46.88 




46.41 




40.56 




46.74 




45.64 




46.68 
47.18 




47.89 




48.18 




4S.16 
4S.47 


Dublin 


49.05 




52. OS 




52.71 




51.03 
50.68 




50.88 




51.08 




51.81 




51.67 
58.58 




52.87 
53.18 




50.78 
61.58 




58.28 
56.S9 




64.90 




55.80 




57.08 




68.16 




58.82 




60.49 




08.83 




73.81 




60.26 




61.05 




61.40 




61.40 


Norfolk (Virg'a, U.S.) 

Messina 

Cape of Good Hope . . 


60.60 
68.71 
65.70 
60.77 
68.08 




63.08 




67.61 




56.47 
62.06 
62.68 




63.03 
63.08 




69.80 
67.40 


Gibraltar 


67.44 
6S.77 




69.88 




72.17 




73.74 




73.75 




70.91 




77.17 

77.02 


Seringapatam 


75.76 
60.26 
78.89 




82.41 




81.27 




80.68 




78.88 




80.75 


Madras 


81.94 



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